tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-56492704470279236982023-11-15T05:18:29.189-08:00Lolah The TigerBlog anak SMP yg belum mengerti betul tentang BloggingLolahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04420217654620250583noreply@blogger.comBlogger3125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5649270447027923698.post-5080026234696726002012-09-01T05:31:00.009-07:002012-09-01T05:31:59.709-07:00Short Functional Text<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Monotype Corsiva"; font-size: 48.0pt; line-height: 115%;">English
Exercise<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Monotype Corsiva"; font-size: 48.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Short
Functional Text<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Monotype Corsiva"; font-size: 72.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-no-proof: yes;"><v:shapetype coordsize="21600,21600" filled="f" id="_x0000_t75" o:preferrelative="t" o:spt="75" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" stroked="f">
<v:stroke joinstyle="miter">
<v:formulas>
<v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0">
<v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0">
<v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1">
<v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2">
<v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth">
<v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight">
<v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1">
<v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2">
<v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth">
<v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0">
<v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight">
<v:f eqn="sum @10 21600 0">
</v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:formulas>
<v:path gradientshapeok="t" o:connecttype="rect" o:extrusionok="f">
<o:lock aspectratio="t" v:ext="edit">
</o:lock></v:path></v:stroke></v:shapetype><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_1" o:spid="_x0000_i1025" style="height: 219.75pt; mso-wrap-style: square; visibility: visible; width: 217.5pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="j0230876" src="file:///C:\Users\user\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image001.wmz">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Monotype Corsiva"; font-size: 72.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: 'Monotype Corsiva';"><span style="font-size: 64px; line-height: 73px;">By</span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Monotype Corsiva'; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">Lolah
Aria Wisesa</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left; text-indent: -24px;">
<span style="font-family: 'Monotype Corsiva';"><span style="font-size: 27px; line-height: 31px;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 121.05pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="font-size: 27px; line-height: 31px;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Label<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Meaning : Label is a
note which you can find in the cover of the product. It usually in the sentence
that shows the benefit of its product. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Function : the function
of label is it shows how to use, and we can get information about compotition,
direction, and the benefit of the product.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Be used : </span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">we use the</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <span class="hps">labels</span>
<span class="hps">when they want to</span> <span class="hps">know the</span> <span class="hps">usefulness</span> <span class="hps">and so forth</span>, <span class="hps">so that</span> <span class="hps">we can</span> <span class="hps">use the</span>
<span class="hps">drug</span> <span class="hps">properly</span>.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Example <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<v:rect id="_x0000_s1026" style="height: 395.1pt; margin-left: 52.5pt; margin-top: 25.85pt; position: absolute; width: 374.25pt; z-index: 1;">
<v:textbox>
<!--[if !mso]-->
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><!--[endif]-->
<div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Demacilin<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Syrup
cold remedy<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Compotition <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Each measurement spoonful (5 ml )
contains :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Paracetamol
.................................................. 120 mg<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pseudoephedrine hcl
..................................... 7,5 mg<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Chlorpheniramine meate
............................... 7 mg<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Indication :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">For relief of cold with the
following symtoms : fever, headache, hasal cungestion and sneezing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Direction :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Shake well before drinking<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Caution : Store in dry place, before
30 degree<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>
<!--[if !mso]--></td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<!--[endif]--></v:textbox>
</v:rect><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;">
<br /></div>
<br clear="ALL" />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Question
:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When we use the label ?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">We use that when we wants to get
information about the product.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What is the meaning of
label ?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Label is a note which you can find in the
cover of the product. It usually in the sentence that shows the benefit of its
product. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Where we can find the
label ?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">We can find the label in the cover of
the product.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Shopping
List <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Meaning
: </span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">shopping list</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <span class="hps">is one</span> <span class="hps">of</span> <span class="hps">the short</span> <span class="hps">functional</span> <span class="hps">text</span>
<span class="hps">that</span> <span class="hps">is shaped like a note.</span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Function : </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">shopping list</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <span class="hps">is one</span>
<span class="hps">of</span> <span class="hps">the short</span> <span class="hps">functional</span>
<span class="hps">text</span> <span class="hps">that</span> <span class="hps">is
shaped like a note</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Be
use : </span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">so</span></span><span class="shorttext"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">we</span></span><span class="shorttext"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">do not</span></span><span class="shorttext"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">forget to</span></span><span class="shorttext"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">buy</span></span><span class="shorttext"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">the desired
goods.</span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Example :</span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="LightShading-Accent11" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent1; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent1; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.25pt;" valign="top" width="59">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span lang="IN" style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">No.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 71.25pt;" valign="top" width="95">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Name <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent1; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.25pt;" valign="top" width="59">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 71.25pt;" valign="top" width="95">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Qty <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent1; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 27.0pt;" valign="top" width="36">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 88.55pt;" valign="top" width="118">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Price / kg<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent1; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 12.0pt;" valign="top" width="16">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 103.55pt;" valign="top" width="138">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Total price <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: #D3DFEE; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: accent1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.25pt;" valign="top" width="59">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span lang="IN" style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">1<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #D3DFEE; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: accent1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 71.25pt;" valign="top" width="95">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span lang="IN" style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Rice <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #D3DFEE; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: accent1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.25pt;" valign="top" width="59">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #D3DFEE; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: accent1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 71.25pt;" valign="top" width="95">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">1 kg<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #D3DFEE; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: accent1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 27.0pt;" valign="top" width="36">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #D3DFEE; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: accent1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 88.55pt;" valign="top" width="118">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Rp. 8.000<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #D3DFEE; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: accent1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 12.0pt;" valign="top" width="16">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #D3DFEE; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: accent1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 103.55pt;" valign="top" width="138">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Rp. 8.000<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.25pt;" valign="top" width="59">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span lang="IN" style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">2<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 71.25pt;" valign="top" width="95">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span lang="IN" style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Apple <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.25pt;" valign="top" width="59">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 71.25pt;" valign="top" width="95">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">½ kg<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 27.0pt;" valign="top" width="36">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 88.55pt;" valign="top" width="118">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Rp. 18.000<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 12.0pt;" valign="top" width="16">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 103.55pt;" valign="top" width="138">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Rp. 9.000<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: #D3DFEE; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: accent1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.25pt;" valign="top" width="59">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span lang="IN" style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">3<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #D3DFEE; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: accent1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 71.25pt;" valign="top" width="95">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span lang="IN" style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Meat <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #D3DFEE; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: accent1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 44.25pt;" valign="top" width="59">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #D3DFEE; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: accent1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 71.25pt;" valign="top" width="95">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">2 kg<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #D3DFEE; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: accent1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 27.0pt;" valign="top" width="36">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #D3DFEE; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: accent1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 88.55pt;" valign="top" width="118">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Rp. 10.000<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #D3DFEE; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: accent1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-right-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 12.0pt;" valign="top" width="16">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #D3DFEE; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: accent1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 103.55pt;" valign="top" width="138">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Rp. 20.000<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 24.0pt; mso-row-margin-left: 358.55pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td colspan="7" style="border: none; mso-cell-special: placeholder; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;" width="478"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="background: #D3DFEE; border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 24.0pt; mso-background-themecolor: accent1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 103.55pt;" valign="top" width="138">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Grand price :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Rp. 37.000<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Question</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What is the meaning of
shopping list ?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; text-indent: .25in;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">shopping list</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <span class="hps">is one</span>
<span class="hps">of</span> <span class="hps">the short</span> <span class="hps">functional</span>
<span class="hps">text</span> <span class="hps">that</span> <span class="hps">is
shaped like a note, and we use that to remember what thing must buy.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 35.45pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When we use the
shopping list ?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">We use shopping
list when we wants to buy any thing and to remember that you want to buy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Can we use the shopping
list to remember what thing must buy ?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Yes, we can.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Announcement
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Meaning : announcement
is a steatment that tells people about something.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Function : </span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">announcement</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <span class="hps">serves as a</span>
<span class="hps">middleman to</span> <span class="hps">announce</span> <span class="hps">something</span> <span class="hps">to</span> <span class="hps">someone
else. </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Be used : </span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">when they
want to</span></span><span class="shorttext"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">announce</span></span><span class="shorttext"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">something. </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Example </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<v:roundrect arcsize="10923f" id="_x0000_s1027" style="height: 142.5pt; margin-left: 45pt; margin-top: 20.15pt; position: absolute; width: 380.25pt; z-index: 2;">
<v:textbox>
<!--[if !mso]-->
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><!--[endif]-->
<div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Announcement<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Good morning every one, may I
have your attention please ?, I lost my science note book two days ago. Is
there any one of you kind it, please meet me in class VIIc. I am Vira.
Thank you for your attention.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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</v:roundrect><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Quuestion <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What is the meaning of
anouncement ?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">announcement is a
steatment that tells people about something.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Where you can find the
annnounncemet ?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">We can find the
announcement in school, especially announcement board, etc.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Can you use the
announcement to inviting some one ?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">No, I am not</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 35.45pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Latter<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Meaning : </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">letter is one of the
functional short text, a piece of paper or more, and sent through the post
office for someone else, who was somewhere else.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Function : we use that to send message to other people.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Be use : when we wants to send message to other people.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Example <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<v:roundrect arcsize="10923f" id="_x0000_s1028" style="height: 151.5pt; margin-left: 36.75pt; margin-top: 27.6pt; position: absolute; width: 397.5pt; z-index: 3;">
<v:textbox>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<tbody>
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<td><!--[endif]-->
<div>
<div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;">
<span lang="IN">23-10-2010</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN">Dear Ayu</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN"> Hello
ayu, how are you ? I hope you always fine. Ayu I have a new pet now, it is
a dog namely browny. I hope you can come to my house!.</span></div>
<div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;">
<span lang="IN">Best
regard</span></div>
<div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;">
<span lang="IN">Lolah </span></div>
</div>
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</tr>
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</v:roundrect><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Question
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Can you tell me about a letter ?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">letter is one of the functional short text, a piece of paper
or more, and sent through the post office for someone else, who was somewhere
else.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Who the sender of the letter ?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The sender of the letter is ogik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="shorttext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="shorttext"><span lang="IN" style="background: white; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The letter addressed
to?</span></span><span class="shorttext"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The letter addressed to Ayu.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">5.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Caution <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Meaning : caution is one of the short functional text, that </span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">contains
about command</span></span><span class="shorttext"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">/</span></span><span class="shorttext"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">prohibition.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Function : we use to commemorate some
one.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Be used : we use that when we want to
commemorate some one about some thing.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Example <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;">
<v:roundrect arcsize="10923f" id="_x0000_s1029" style="height: 64.5pt; left: 0; margin-left: 55.5pt; margin-top: 19.55pt; position: absolute; text-align: left; width: 324.75pt; z-index: 4;">
<v:textbox>
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<tbody>
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<div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-size: 36.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Careful wet floor<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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</tr>
</tbody></table>
<!--[endif]--></v:textbox>
</v:roundrect></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<br clear="ALL" />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Question <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When
we use the caution ?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">we
use that when we want to commemorate
some one about some thing.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Can we find the caution in the
hospital ?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 57.3pt;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Yes, we can<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Besides the hospital, where we can
find the caution ?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 57.3pt;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">We can find the caution in the mall,
school, supermarket, hotel, etc.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">6.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Notice <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Meaning : notice is a written text /
sign to give information instruction or caution to the public.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Function : we</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <span class="hps">could</span> <span class="hps">use the</span> <span class="hps">notice</span> <span class="hps">to</span>
<span class="hps">give</span> <span class="hps">any information</span> <span class="hps">to others</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Be use : we can use the notice to give information.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><v:rect fillcolor="white [3201]" id="_x0000_s1030" strokecolor="#4f81bd [3204]" strokeweight="2.5pt" style="height: 43.5pt; left: 0; margin-left: 77.25pt; margin-top: 25.95pt; position: absolute; text-align: left; text-indent: 0; width: 318pt; z-index: 5;">
<v:shadow color="#868686">
<v:textbox>
<!--[if !mso]-->
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<tbody>
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<td><!--[endif]-->
<div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-size: 26.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Information room<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<!--[if !mso]--></td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<!--[endif]--></v:textbox>
</v:shadow></v:rect><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Example :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Question <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Where we can find the caution
“informatin room“ above ?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 57.3pt;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">We can find the cation above in the
hospital.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Can we can find notice in the sea ?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Yes,
we can<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What the function of notice ?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">We
can use the notice to give</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <span class="hps">any information</span> <span class="hps">to
others</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">7.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Post Card <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Meaning : post card is one of the
short functional text, that can we use to send message to other people.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Functional : to send message to
people.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Bu used : we can use it when we want
to send message to other people.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Exanple :<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<v:rect id="_x0000_s1031" style="height: 200.25pt; margin-left: 14.25pt; margin-top: 9.35pt; position: absolute; width: 437.25pt; z-index: 6;">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN"> Gianyar,
21 april 2009</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN">To : Ani</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN">From : Lolah</span></div>
<div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;">
<span lang="IN"> Ani , today in Indonesia is
Kartini’s day. It was very beautiful day, because there are so many party
in Indonesia. I hope you can come to Indonesia. Your
best friend</span></div>
<div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;">
<span lang="IN"> (Lolah) </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>
<!--[if !mso]--></td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<!--[endif]--></v:textbox>
</v:rect><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Question <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What is the meaning of Post Card ?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">post card is one of the short
functional text, that can we use to send message to other people.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Where you can find the post card ?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">We can find the post card in the post
office.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What is the post card tell above ?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The post card above tell about
Kartini’s day in Indonesia.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0px;">
<span class="hps" style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> 8.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><span class="hps" style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Inviting card</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Meaning : inviting card is one of the
short functional text, that can use for inviting some one.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Function : we can invite some one by
inviting card.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Be used : we can use it to invite
some one to come to an event.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Example :<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast">
<v:shapetype adj="2700" coordsize="21600,21600" id="_x0000_t176" o:spt="176" path="m@0,qx0@0l0@2qy@0,21600l@1,21600qx21600@2l21600@0qy@1,xe">
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<v:path gradientshapeok="t" limo="10800,10800" o:connectlocs="@8,0;0,@9;@8,@7;@6,@9" o:connecttype="custom" textboxrect="@3,@3,@4,@5">
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Monotype Corsiva"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Lolah Birthday Party<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Monotype Corsiva"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Wellcome to my birthday party, 14
th<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Monotype Corsiva"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">At : Sugriwa street no. 61 ubud,
gianyar<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Monotype Corsiva"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">On : Saturday , 2 oktober
2011-09-08<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Monotype Corsiva"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Time : 04.00 p.m<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Monotype Corsiva"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Thank you for your attention</span></div>
</div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<!--[endif]--></v:textbox>
</v:shadow></v:shape><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN"> </span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: 0.5in;">Question</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What the inviting card about ?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The inviting card
is about Nani’s birthday party<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Where is the birthday party ?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 57.3pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The birthday parti held at Sugriwa street no. 61 Ubud,
Gianyar<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What is the function of inviting card ?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The function of
inviting card is to invite some one<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">9.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">Greeting Card</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Meaning : greeting card is one of the text functional text,
that about greeting statements.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Function : we use that to send a short message about greetig
statements to other people.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Be used : when we want to express how to tell to other
people.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Example <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<span lang="IN">Dear : Lili</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN">From : juspita</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN"> <span class="hps">I say</span> <span class="hps">congratulations</span> <span class="hps">on</span> <span class="hps">your</span> <span class="hps">success</span>
<span class="hps">The former</span> <span class="hps">champion</span> <span class="hps">who</span> <span class="hps">has</span> <span class="hps">won</span> <span class="hps">the</span> <span class="hps">english compotation </span> <span class="hps">this time</span>, <span class="hps">hopefully</span> <span class="hps">this</span> <span class="hps">can
guide</span> <span class="hps">your life</span>.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;">
<span lang="IN">Your
best friend</span></div>
<div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right;">
<span lang="IN">juspita</span></div>
</div>
<!--[if !mso]--></td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<!--[endif]--></v:textbox>
</v:rect><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Question
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What the greeting card about ?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The greeting card
is tell about <span class="hps">congratulations to</span><span class="shorttext"> </span><span class="hps">Lili.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Why Lolah say congratulations to
Lili ?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Juspita
say congratulation to Lili, because Lili get success in the english
compotition.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Who the sender of the greeting card ?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The sender of
greeting card is Lolah.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">10.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Warning<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Meaning : warning is a word that
telling some body to be careful of danger. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Function : that telling some body to
be careful of danger<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Be use : when we want to tell some
body to be cerfeful of danger<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Example <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<v:rect fillcolor="#9bbb59 [3206]" id="_x0000_s1034" strokecolor="#f2f2f2 [3041]" strokeweight="3pt" style="height: 56.25pt; margin-left: 77.25pt; margin-top: 13.1pt; position: absolute; width: 356.25pt; z-index: 9;">
<v:shadow color="#4e6128 [1606]" offset2="-1pt" offset="1pt" opacity=".5" type="perspective">
<v:textbox>
<!--[if !mso]-->
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><!--[endif]-->
<div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-size: 36.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Caution beware dog<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<!--[if !mso]--></td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<!--[endif]--></v:textbox>
</v:shadow></v:rect><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span></div>
<br clear="ALL" />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Question <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: 65.25pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Where we can see / find the warning ?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 65.25pt;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">We can see the warming in the sea, hospital, zoo, etc<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: 65.25pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Can you find the other example of
warning, except the exemple above ?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; text-indent: .5in;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Yes, there are “ beware sharp
bend”, “beware</span></span><span class="shorttext"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">the detour”.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">When we can use the warning ?</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">We can use
the warning went we want to tell some one to be careful of danger.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">11.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> Memo /
short message<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Meaning : is adreess to our selves
to remember something.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Function: to remember something.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Be used : when we have alot of thing
to do, to make sure we writte a memo. So we won’t forget it.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><v:shape fillcolor="#fabf8f [1945]" id="_x0000_s1035" strokecolor="#8db3e2 [1311]" style="height: 117.65pt; left: 0; margin-left: 17.25pt; margin-top: 20pt; position: absolute; text-align: left; text-indent: 0; width: 371.25pt; z-index: 10;" type="#_x0000_t176">
<v:textbox>
<!--[if !mso]-->
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><!--[endif]-->
<div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN">Dear Mom</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN">Mom
<span class="hps">I went to</span> <span class="hps">my friend’s
house,</span> <span class="hps">please you make</span> <span class="hps">dinner</span> <span class="hps">when I</span> <span class="hps">get
home. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 3.5in;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN"> Your daughter<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN"> Indri</span></span></div>
</div>
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</tr>
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</v:shape><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Example<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div align="right" class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 65.25pt; text-align: right;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Question<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: 65.25pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What the memo above tell about ?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 65.25pt;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The memo above tell about
message from Indri to her mom<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: 65.25pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Where Indri go before leaving the
message ?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Indri go to her friend’s
house before leaving the message.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: 65.25pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Can you use the memo to invite some
one ?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">No, I am not.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: 65.25pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">12.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Poem <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: 65.25pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Meaning : poem is aword arranged to
be more artistic.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: 65.25pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Function : <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: 65.25pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">For the writter : express emotional
state / our feeling.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: 65.25pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">For reader : to tell the word that
contain on that poem.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: 65.25pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Be used : when we want to express
emotionsl state/ our feeling.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: 65.25pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Example<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<v:rect fillcolor="#f79646 [3209]" id="_x0000_s1036" strokecolor="#f2f2f2 [3041]" strokeweight="3pt" style="height: 183.4pt; margin-left: 45.75pt; margin-top: 1.85pt; position: absolute; width: 362.25pt; z-index: 11;">
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Monotype Corsiva"; font-size: 24.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Mother<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Monotype Corsiva"; font-size: 16.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">mother ..<br />
you are my heaven on earth<br />
you like the sun<br />
which is always shining,,,<br />
and enlightening,,,<br />
so I can become a virtuous man<br />
thank you mom .....<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>
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</v:shadow></v:rect><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span></div>
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<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Question <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What is the meaning of the poem ?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">is
aword arranged to be more artistic<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What the poem tell about ?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This
poem is tell us about “ Mother”<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When the poem can use ?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">when
we want to express emotionsl state/ our feeling</span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">13.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Note <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Meaning : note is a sentence that
written by some one to make sure they don’t forget that some thing do.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Function : to writte take a note, or
to make sure they don’t forget that
something do.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Be use : any time you writting
information / some thing.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Example <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<v:shadow color="#622423 [1605]" offset2="-1pt" offset="1pt" opacity=".5" type="perspective">
<v:textbox>
<!--[if !mso]-->
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><!--[endif]-->
<div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Note
:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Latter
is something we writte tob an other<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Memo
is adreess to our selves to remember some thing<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>
<!--[if !mso]--></td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<!--[endif]--></v:textbox>
</v:shadow></v:rect><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<br clear="ALL" />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Question <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: 78.0pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What is the meaning of note ?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 78.0pt;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">note is a sentence that written by some one to make sure they
don’t forget that some thing do<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: 78.0pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What the note tell about ?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 78.0pt;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The note tell about defination of memo and latter<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: 78.0pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What is the function of note ?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> to writte take a note, or to make sure they
don’t forget that something do<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">14.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Brocure
<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Meaning : brocure is booklit of
information usually ad advetisement<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Function : advertise of a business (
attractive people to come to our bisiness ).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Be used : we use that when we want to
bring people in to business.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Example :<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;">
<v:shapetype adj="2700" coordsize="21600,21600" id="_x0000_t98" o:spt="98" path="m0@5qy@2@1l@0@1@0@2qy@7,,21600@2l21600@9qy@7@10l@1@10@1@11qy@2,21600,0@11xem0@5nfqy@2@6@1@5@3@4@2@5l@2@6em@1@5nfl@1@10em21600@2nfqy@7@1l@0@1em@0@2nfqy@8@3@7@2l@7@1e">
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</v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:formulas>
<v:path limo="10800,10800" o:connectangles="270,180,90,0" o:connectlocs="@13,@1;0,@14;@13,@10;@12,@14" o:connecttype="custom" o:extrusionok="f" textboxrect="@1,@1,@7,@10">
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</v:h></v:handles>
<o:complex v:ext="view">
</o:complex></v:path></v:shapetype><v:shape fillcolor="#9bbb59 [3206]" id="_x0000_s1038" strokecolor="#f2f2f2 [3041]" strokeweight="3pt" style="height: 318.75pt; left: 0; margin-left: 92.25pt; margin-top: 13.1pt; position: absolute; text-align: left; width: 240.75pt; z-index: 13;" type="#_x0000_t98">
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<!--[if !mso]-->
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<tbody>
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<td><!--[endif]-->
<div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN">DENONI’X
SHOOP</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN">Sugriwa
street no. 3 Ubud Gianyar</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN">Have opened the store, which sells all
kinds of computer and laptop, at cheap prices.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN">Let’s pray come....</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<v:shape id="Picture_x0020_2" o:spid="_x0000_i1026" style="height: 77.25pt; mso-wrap-style: square; visibility: visible; width: 141.75pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="j0195384" src="file:///C:\Users\user\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image002.wmz">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>
<!--[if !mso]--></td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<!--[endif]--></v:textbox>
</v:shadow></v:shape><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 78.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<br clear="ALL" />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN"> </span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Question <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: 88.5pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What about</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">whether</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">brocure </span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">above?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 88.5pt;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The brocure above tell about DENONI’X Store that sell many
kinds of cumputer and laptop.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: 88.5pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Where the DENONI’X store located ?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 88.5pt;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The DENONI’X store is located at Sugriwa Street no. 3 Ubud,
Gianyar.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 57.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: 88.5pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Can you find a handphone in the
DENONI’X store ?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">No, I can not.</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
Lolahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04420217654620250583noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5649270447027923698.post-89277375127688361212012-03-04T15:08:00.002-08:002012-03-04T15:08:57.880-08:00photosynthesize<br />
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Definition<o:p></o:p></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Photosynthesis</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English" title="Wikipedia:IPA for English"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; mso-themecolor: text1;">/</span></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key" title="Wikipedia:IPA for English"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; mso-themecolor: text1;">f</span></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key" title="Wikipedia:IPA for English"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; mso-themecolor: text1;">o</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial Unicode MS","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">ʊ</span></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key" title="Wikipedia:IPA for English"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; mso-themecolor: text1;">t</span></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key" title="Wikipedia:IPA for English"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; mso-themecolor: text1;">o</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial Unicode MS","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">ʊ</span></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key" title="Wikipedia:IPA for English"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial Unicode MS","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">ˈ</span></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key" title="Wikipedia:IPA for English"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; mso-themecolor: text1;">s</span></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key" title="Wikipedia:IPA for English"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial Unicode MS","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">ɪ</span></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key" title="Wikipedia:IPA for English"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; mso-themecolor: text1;">n</span></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key" title="Wikipedia:IPA for English"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; mso-themecolor: text1;">θ</span></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key" title="Wikipedia:IPA for English"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial Unicode MS","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">ə</span></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key" title="Wikipedia:IPA for English"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; mso-themecolor: text1;">s</span></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key" title="Wikipedia:IPA for English"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial Unicode MS","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">ɪ</span></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key" title="Wikipedia:IPA for English"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; mso-themecolor: text1;">s</span></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English" title="Wikipedia:IPA for English"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS"; mso-themecolor: text1;">/</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">; from the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Greek</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">φώτο-</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">[photo-]</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">,
"light," and</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">σύνθεσις</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">[synthesis]</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, "putting together",
"composition") is a</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical" title="Chemical"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">chemical</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">process
that converts</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">carbon
dioxide</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">into</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">organic
compounds</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, especially</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">sugars</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, using the energy from sunlight.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Photosynthesis
occurs in</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant" title="Plant"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">plants</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">,</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae" title="Algae"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">algae</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, and many species of</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">bacteria</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, but not in</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">archaea</span></a>. Photosynthetic organisms are
called</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoautotroph" title="Photoautotroph"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">photoautotrophs</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, since they can create their own food. In
plants, algae, and</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">cyanobacteria</span></a>, photosynthesis uses carbon
dioxide and</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water" title="Water"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">water</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, releasing</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">oxygen</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">as
a waste product. Photosynthesis is vital for all aerobic</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life" title="Life"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">life
on Earth</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">. In addition to
maintaining normal levels of oxygen in the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">atmosphere</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, photosynthesis is the source of energy for
nearly all life on earth, either directly, through</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">primary production</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, or indirectly, as the ultimate source of
the energy in their food,</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">the exceptions being</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemoautotrophs" title="Chemoautotrophs"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">chemoautotrophs</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">that
live in rocks or around deep sea</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrothermal_vents" title="Hydrothermal vents"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">hydrothermal vents</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">. The rate of energy capture by
photosynthesis is immense, approximately 100 </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terawatts" title="Terawatts"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">terawatts</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">,</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">which is about six times larger than the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_energy_resources_and_consumption" title="World energy resources and consumption"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">power consumption of human
civilization</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">As
well as energy, photosynthesis is also the source of the carbon in all the
organic compounds within organisms' bodies. In all, photosynthetic organisms
convert around 100–115 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petagram" title="Petagram"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">petagrams</span></a>of carbon
into</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">biomass</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">per
year. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Although
photosynthesis can happen in different ways in different species, some features
are always the same. For example, the process always begins when energy from
light is absorbed by</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein" title="Protein"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">proteins</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">called</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthetic_reaction_center" title="Photosynthetic reaction center"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">photosynthetic reaction centers</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">that
contain</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">chlorophylls</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">. In plants, these proteins are held inside</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">organelles</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">called</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">chloroplasts</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, while in bacteria they are embedded in the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_membrane" title="Plasma membrane"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">plasma
membrane</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">. Some of the
light energy gathered by chlorophylls is stored in the form of</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">adenosine triphosphate</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">(ATP).
The rest of the energy is used to remove</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron" title="Electron"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">electrons</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">from
a substance such as water. These electrons are then used in the reactions that
turn carbon dioxide into organic compounds. In plants, algae and cyanobacteria,
this is done by a sequence of reactions called the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvin_cycle" title="Calvin cycle"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Calvin
cycle</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, but different
sets of reactions are found in some bacteria, such as the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_Krebs_cycle" title="Reverse Krebs cycle"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">reverse Krebs cycle</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">in</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorobium" title="Chlorobium"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Chlorobium</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">. Many photosynthetic organisms have</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">adaptations</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">that
concentrate or store carbon dioxide. This helps reduce a wasteful process
called</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photorespiration" title="Photorespiration"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">photorespiration</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">that
can consume part of the sugar produced during photosynthesis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">The first
photosynthetic organisms probably</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">evolved</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">about</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://toolserver.org/~verisimilus/Timeline/Timeline.php?Ma=3,500"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">3,500</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> million years ago</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, early in the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Evolutionary history of life"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">evolutionary history of life</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, when all forms of life on Earth were</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">microorganisms</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">and
the atmosphere had much more carbon dioxide. They most likely used</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">hydrogen</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">or</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">hydrogen
sulfide</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">as sources of electrons, rather than water.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Cyanobacteria
appeared later, around</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://toolserver.org/~verisimilus/Timeline/Timeline.php?Ma=3,000"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">3,000</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> million years ago</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, and drastically changed the Earth when they
began to</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_catastrophe" title="Oxygen catastrophe"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">oxygenate the atmosphere</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, beginning about</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://toolserver.org/~verisimilus/Timeline/Timeline.php?Ma=2,400"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">2,400</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> million years ago</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">This new atmosphere allowed the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_multicellularity" title="Evolution of multicellularity"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">evolution of complex life</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">such
as</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protist" title="Protist"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">protists</span></a>.
Eventually, no later than a billion years ago, one of these protists formed a</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">symbiotic
relationship</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">with a cyanobacterium, producing the ancestor
of many plants and algae.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">The chloroplasts in modern plants are the
descendants of these ancient symbiotic cyanobacteria.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Overview<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 8.5pt;">Photosynthesis changes sunlight into chemical
energy, splits water to liberate O<sub>2</sub>, and fixes CO<sub>2</sub></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 8.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 8.5pt;">into sugar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Photosynthetic
organisms are</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoautotroph" title="Photoautotroph"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">photoautotrophs</span></a>, which means that they are
repositories of energy, they are able to</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">synthesize</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">food directly from carbon dioxide, water, and
using energy from light. They accrue it as part of their</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_energy" title="Potential energy"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">potential
energy</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">. However, not all
organisms that use light as a source of energy carry out photosynthesis, since</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">photoheterotrophs</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">use
organic compounds, rather than carbon dioxide, as a source of carbon.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">In
plants, algae and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis releases oxygen. This is called</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">oxygenic photosynthesis</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">. Although there are some differences between
oxygenic photosynthesis in</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plants" title="Plants"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">plants</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">,</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae" title="Algae"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">algae</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">and</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">cyanobacteria</span></a>, the overall process is
quite similar in these organisms. However, there are some types of bacteria
that carry out</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anoxygenic_photosynthesis" title="Anoxygenic photosynthesis"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">anoxygenic
photosynthesis</span></a>, which consumes carbon dioxide but does not release
oxygen.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Carbon dioxide is
converted into sugars in a process called</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fixation" title="Carbon fixation"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">carbon
fixation</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">. Carbon fixation
is a</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox" title="Redox"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">redox</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">reaction,
so photosynthesis needs to supply both a source of energy to drive this
process, and the electrons needed to convert carbon dioxide into a</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">carbohydrate</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, which is a</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduction_(chemistry)" title="Reduction (chemistry)"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">reduction reaction</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">. In general outline, photosynthesis is the
opposite of</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">cellular respiration</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, where glucose and other compounds are
oxidized to produce carbon dioxide, water, and release chemical energy.
However, the two processes take place through a different sequence of chemical
reactions and in different cellular compartments.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">The general</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_equation" title="Chemical equation"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">equation</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">for
photosynthesis is therefore:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">2n CO<sub>2</sub></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">+
2n DH<sub>2</sub></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">+</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photons" title="Photons"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">photons</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">→</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">2(CH<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>n</sub></span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">+
2n DO<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Carbon dioxide + electron donor + light
energy → carbohydrate + oxidized electron donor<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">In</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">oxygenic</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">photosynthesis
water is the electron donor and, since its</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrolysis" title="Hydrolysis"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">hydrolysis</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">releases
oxygen, the equation for this process is:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">2n CO<sub>2</sub></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">+
4n H<sub>2</sub>O +</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photons" title="Photons"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">photons</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">→</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">2(CH<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>n</sub></span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">+
2n O<sub>2</sub></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">+ 2n H<sub>2</sub>O<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">carbon dioxide + water + light energy →
carbohydrate + oxygen + water<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Often 2n water molecules are cancelled on
both sides, yielding:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">2n CO<sub>2</sub></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">+
2n H<sub>2</sub>O +</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photons" title="Photons"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">photons</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">→</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">2(CH<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>n</sub></span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">+
2n O<sub>2</sub><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">carbon dioxide + water + light energy →
carbohydrate + oxygen<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Other processes substitute other compounds
(such as</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenite" title="Arsenite"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">arsenite</span></a>) for water in the electron-supply
role; the microbes use sunlight to oxidize arsenite to</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenate" title="Arsenate"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">arsenate</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">:</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">The equation for this reaction is:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">CO<sub>2</sub></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">+
(AsO<sub>3</sub><sup>3–</sup>) + photons → (AsO<sub>4</sub><sup>3–</sup>) + CO</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">carbon dioxide + arsenite + light energy →
arsenate + carbon monoxide (used to build other compounds in subsequent
reactions)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Photosynthesis occurs in two stages. In the
first stage,</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">light-dependent
reactions</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">or</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">light reactions</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">capture
the energy of light and use it to make the energy-storage molecules</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">ATP</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">and</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NADPH" title="NADPH"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">NADPH</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">. During the second stage, the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">light-independent reactions</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">use
these products to capture and reduce carbon dioxide.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Most organisms that utilize photosynthesis to
produce oxygen use</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">visible
light</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">to do so, although at least three use</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">infrared
radiation</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.</span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<div class="MsoTitle">
Photosynthetic
Membranes and Organelles<o:p></o:p></div>
</div>
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<span style="color: #0b0080; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chloroplast.svg" title=""Enlarge" "><span style="color: #0b0080; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-no-proof: yes; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_12" o:spid="_x0000_i1037"
type="#_x0000_t75" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chloroplast.svg"
title=""Enlarge"" style='width:11.25pt;height:8.25pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square' o:button="t">
<v:fill o:detectmouseclick="t"/>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\user\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image003.gif"
o:title="magnify-clip"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img border="0" height="11" src="file:///C:/Users/user/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.gif" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_12" width="15" /><!--[endif]--></span></a><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 8.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 8.5pt;">Chloroplast ultrastructure:<br />
1. outer membrane<br />
2. intermembrane space<br />
3. inner membrane (1+2+3: envelope)<br />
4. stroma (aqueous fluid)<br />
5. thylakoid lumen (inside of thylakoid)<br />
6. thylakoid membrane<br />
7. granum (stack of thylakoids)<br />
8. thylakoid (lamella)<br />
9. starch<br />
10. ribosome<br />
11. plastidial DNA<br />
12. plastoglobule (drop of lipids)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">The proteins that
gather light for photosynthesis are embedded within</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">cell
membranes</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">. The simplest way
these are arranged is in photosynthetic bacteria, where these proteins are held
within the plasma membrane.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">However, this membrane may be tightly folded
into cylindrical sheets called</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thylakoid" title="Thylakoid"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">thylakoids</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">,</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">or bunched up into round</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesicle_(biology)" title="Vesicle (biology)"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">vesicles</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">called</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">intracytoplasmic membranes</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosyntesis#cite_note-15"><sup><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">[16]</span></sup></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">These
structures can fill most of the interior of a cell, giving the membrane a very
large surface area and therefore increasing the amount of light that the
bacteria can absorb.</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosyntesis#cite_note-Mullineaux1999-14"><sup><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">[15]</span></sup></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">In plants and
algae, photosynthesis takes place in</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">organelles</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">called</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">chloroplasts</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">. A typical</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">plant
cell</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">contains about 10 to 100 chloroplasts. The
chloroplast is enclosed by a membrane. This membrane is composed of a
phospholipid inner membrane, a phospholipid outer membrane, and an intermembrane
space between them. Within the membrane is an aqueous fluid called the stroma.
The stroma contains stacks (grana) of thylakoids, which are the site of
photosynthesis. The thylakoids are flattened disks, bounded by a membrane with
a lumen or thylakoid space within it. The site of photosynthesis is the
thylakoid membrane, which contains integral and</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_membrane_protein" title="Peripheral membrane protein"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">peripheral membrane protein</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">complexes,
including the pigments that absorb light energy, which form the photosystems.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Plants absorb
light primarily using the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">pigment</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">chlorophyll</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, which is the reason that most plants have a
green color. Besides chlorophyll, plants also use pigments such as</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotene" title="Carotene"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">carotenes</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">and</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xanthophyll" title="Xanthophyll"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">xanthophylls</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Algae also use chlorophyll, but various other
pigments are present as</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phycocyanin" title="Phycocyanin"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">phycocyanin</span></a>,</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotene" title="Carotene"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">carotenes</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, and</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xanthophyll" title="Xanthophyll"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">xanthophylls</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">in</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">green
algae</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">,</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phycoerythrin" title="Phycoerythrin"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">phycoerythrin</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">in</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">red
algae</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">(rhodophytes) and</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fucoxanthin" title="Fucoxanthin"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">fucoxanthin</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">in</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_algae" title="Brown algae"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">brown
algae</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">and</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatoms" title="Diatoms"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">diatoms</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">resulting
in a wide variety of colors.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">These pigments are
embedded in plants and algae in special antenna-proteins. In such proteins all
the pigments are ordered to work well together. Such a protein is also called a</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-harvesting_complex" title="Light-harvesting complex"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">light-harvesting complex</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Although all cells
in the green parts of a plant have chloroplasts, most of the energy is captured
in the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">leaves</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">. The cells in the interior tissues of a
leaf, called the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesophyll" title="Mesophyll"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">mesophyll</span></a>, can contain between 450,000 and
800,000 chloroplasts for every square millimeter of leaf. The surface of the
leaf is uniformly coated with a water-resistant</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wax" title="Wax"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">waxy</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">cuticle</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">that
protects the leaf from excessive</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">evaporation</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">of
water and decreases the absorption of</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">ultraviolet</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">or</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue" title="Blue"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">blue</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light" title="Light"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">light</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">to
reduce</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat" title="Heat"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">heating</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">. The transparent</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaf#Epidermis" title="Leaf"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">epidermis</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">layer
allows light to pass through to the</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesophyll_tissue" title="Mesophyll tissue"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">palisade</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">mesophyll
cells where most of the photosynthesis takes place<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoTitle">
Light
reactions<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Thylakoid_membrane.png"><span style="color: #0b0080; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-no-proof: yes; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_15" o:spid="_x0000_i1036"
type="#_x0000_t75"
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o:title="450px-Thylakoid_membrane"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img border="0" height="257" src="file:///C:/Users/user/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image007.gif" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_15" width="450" /><!--[endif]--></span></a><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Thylakoid_membrane.png" title=""Enlarge" "><span style="color: #0b0080; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-no-proof: yes; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_16"
o:spid="_x0000_i1035" type="#_x0000_t75"
href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Thylakoid_membrane.png" title=""Enlarge""
style='width:11.25pt;height:8.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'
o:button="t">
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o:title="magnify-clip"/>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 8.5pt;">Light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis at
the thylakoid membrane<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">In the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-dependent_reactions" title="Light-dependent reactions"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">light reactions</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, one molecule of the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">pigment</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">chlorophyll</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">absorbs
one</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon" title="Photon"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">photon</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">and
loses one</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron" title="Electron"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">electron</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">. This electron is passed to a modified form
of chlorophyll called</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pheophytin" title="Pheophytin"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">pheophytin</span></a>, which passes the electron to a</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinone" title="Quinone"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">quinone</span></a>molecule, allowing the start of a
flow of electrons down an</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_transport_chain" title="Electron transport chain"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">electron transport chain</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">that
leads to the ultimate reduction of</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide_phosphate" title="Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">NADP</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">to</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide_phosphate" title="Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">NADPH</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">. In addition, this creates a</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrochemical_gradient" title="Electrochemical gradient"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">proton gradient</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">across
the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroplast_membrane" title="Chloroplast membrane"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">chloroplast membrane</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">; its dissipation is used by</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP_synthase" title="ATP synthase"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">ATP
synthase</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">for the concomitant synthesis of</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">ATP</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
The chlorophyll molecule regains the lost electron from a</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water" title="Water"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">water</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">molecule
through a process called</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodissociation" title="Photodissociation"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">photolysis</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, which releases a</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dioxygen" title="Dioxygen"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">dioxygen</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">(O<sub>2</sub>)
molecule. The overall equation for the light-dependent reactions under the
conditions of non-cyclic electron flow in green plants is: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">2 H<sub>2</sub>O + 2 NADP<sup>+</sup></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">+
3 ADP + 3 P<sub>i</sub></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">+ light → 2 NADPH + 2 H<sup>+</sup></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">+
3 ATP + O<sub>2</sub><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Not all</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">wavelengths</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">of
light can support photosynthesis. The photosynthetic action spectrum depends on
the type of</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accessory_pigment" title="Accessory pigment"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">accessory pigments</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">present.
For example, in green plants, the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_spectrum" title="Action spectrum"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">action
spectrum</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">resembles the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_spectrum" title="Absorption spectrum"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">absorption spectrum</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">for</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">chlorophylls</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">and</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotenoid" title="Carotenoid"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">carotenoids</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">with
peaks for violet-blue and red light. In red algae, the action spectrum overlaps
with the absorption spectrum of</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phycobilin" title="Phycobilin"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">phycobilins</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">for
red blue-green light, which allows these algae to grow in deeper waters that
filter out the longer wavelengths used by green plants. The non-absorbed part
of the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">light spectrum</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">is what gives photosynthetic organisms their
color (e.g., green plants, red algae, purple bacteria) and is the least
effective for photosynthesis in the respective organisms.</span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h3 style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .05in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">Z scheme</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background: #F9F9F9; line-height: 14.25pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #0b0080; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #F9F9F9; line-height: 16.8pt;">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Z-scheme.png" title=""Enlarge" "><span style="color: #0b0080; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-no-proof: yes; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_20" o:spid="_x0000_i1033" type="#_x0000_t75"
href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Z-scheme.png" title=""Enlarge""
style='width:11.25pt;height:8.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'
o:button="t">
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img border="0" height="11" src="file:///C:/Users/user/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.gif" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_20" width="15" /><!--[endif]--></span></a><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 8.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #F9F9F9; line-height: 16.8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 8.5pt;">The
"Z scheme"<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
In plants,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-dependent_reaction" title="Light-dependent reaction"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">light-dependent
reactions</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>occur in the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thylakoid_membrane" title="Thylakoid membrane"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">thylakoid
membranes</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>of the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">chloroplasts</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and use light
energy to synthesize ATP and NADPH. The light-dependent reaction has two forms:
cyclic and non-cyclic. In the non-cyclic reaction, the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon" title="Photon"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">photons</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>are captured in the light-harvesting<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna_complex" title="Antenna complex"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">antenna complexes</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosystem" title="Photosystem"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">photosystem II</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>by<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">chlorophyll</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and other<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accessory_pigments" title="Accessory pigments"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">accessory pigments</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(see diagram at right). When a chlorophyll molecule at
the core of the photosystem II reaction center obtains sufficient excitation
energy from the adjacent antenna pigments, an electron is transferred to the
primary electron-acceptor molecule, pheophytin, through a process called<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoinduced_charge_separation" title="Photoinduced charge separation"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">photoinduced charge separation</span></a>. These electrons are shuttled
through an<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_transfer_chain" title="Electron transfer chain"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">electron transport
chain</span></a>, the so-called<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Z-scheme<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>shown in the diagram, that initially functions to generate
a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemiosmotic_potential" title="Chemiosmotic potential"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">chemiosmotic
potential</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>across the
membrane. An<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP_synthase" title="ATP synthase"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">ATP synthase</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>enzyme uses the
chemiosmotic potential to make ATP during photophosphorylation, whereas<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NADPH" title="NADPH"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">NADPH</span></a> is a product of the terminal<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox" title="Redox"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">redox</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>reaction in the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Z-scheme. The electron enters a chlorophyll
molecule in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosystem_I" title="Photosystem I"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">Photosystem
I</span></a>. The electron is excited due to the light absorbed by the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosystem" title="Photosystem"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">photosystem</span></a>.
A second electron carrier accepts the electron, which again is passed down
lowering energies of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_acceptor" title="Electron acceptor"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">electron acceptors</span></a>. The
energy created by the electron acceptors is used to move hydrogen ions across
the thylakoid membrane into the lumen. The electron is used to reduce the
co-enzyme NADP, which has functions in the light-independent reaction. The
cyclic reaction is similar to that of the non-cyclic, but differs in the form
that it generates only ATP, and no reduced NADP (NADPH) is created. The cyclic
reaction takes place only at photosystem I. Once the electron is displaced from
the photosystem, the electron is passed down the electron acceptor molecules
and returns to photosystem I, from where it was emitted, hence the name<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>cyclic reaction.<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3 style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .05in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">Water photolysis</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
The NADPH is the main<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reducing_agent" title="Reducing agent"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">reducing agent</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>in chloroplasts, providing a source of energetic
electrons to other reactions. Its production leaves chlorophyll with a deficit
of electrons (oxidized), which must be obtained from some other reducing agent.
The excited electrons lost from chlorophyll in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosystem_I" title="Photosystem I"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">photosystem
I</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>are replaced from the electron transport chain by<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastocyanin" title="Plastocyanin"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">plastocyanin</span></a>.
However, since<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosystem_II" title="Photosystem II"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">photosystem
II</span></a>includes the first steps of the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Z-scheme, an external source of electrons is required to reduce
its oxidized<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>chlorophyll</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>a</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>molecules. The source of electrons in green-plant and
cyanobacterial photosynthesis is water. Two water molecules are oxidized by
four successive charge-separation reactions by photosystem II to yield a
molecule of diatomic<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">oxygen</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and four<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">hydrogen</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>ions; the electron
yielded in each step is transferred to a redox-active<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">tyrosine</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>residue that then
reduces the photoxidized paired-chlorophyll<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>species called P680 that serves as the primary
(light-driven) electron donor in the photosystem II reaction center. The
oxidation of water is<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">catalyzed</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>in photosystem II
by a redox-active structure that contains four<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">manganese</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>ions and a calcium
ion; this<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen-evolving_complex" title="Oxygen-evolving complex"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">oxygen-evolving
complex</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>binds two water molecules and stores the four oxidizing
equivalents that are required to drive the water-oxidizing reaction. Photosystem
II is the only known biological<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">enzyme</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>that carries out this oxidation of water. The hydrogen
ions contribute to the transmembrane chemiosmotic potential that leads to ATP
synthesis. Oxygen is a waste product of light-dependent reactions, but the
majority of organisms on Earth use oxygen for<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">cellular respiration</span></a>, including photosynthetic organisms.<span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoTitle">
<span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14.5pt;">Light-Independent reactions</span></b></span></div>
</div>
<h3 style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .05in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">The Calvin cycle</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
In the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-independent_reactions" title="Light-independent reactions"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">light-independent</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>or dark reactions the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">enzyme</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RuBisCO" title="RuBisCO"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">RuBisCO</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>captures<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">CO<sub>2</sub></span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>from the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Earth's atmosphere"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">atmosphere</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and in a
process that requires the newly formed NADPH, called the Calvin-Benson Cycle,
releases three-carbon sugars, which are later combined to form sucrose and
starch. The overall equation for the light-independent reactions in green
plants is: <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">3 CO<sub>2</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>+ 9 ATP + 6 NADPH + 6 H<sup>+</sup><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>→ C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>6</sub>O<sub>3</sub>-phosphate
+ 9 ADP + 8 P<sub>i</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>+ 6
NADP<sup>+</sup><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>+ 3 H<sub>2</sub>O<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #F9F9F9; line-height: 16.8pt; margin-left: 19.2pt; text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Calvin-cycle4.svg" title=""Enlarge" "><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_24" o:spid="_x0000_i1031"
type="#_x0000_t75" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Calvin-cycle4.svg"
title=""Enlarge"" style='width:11.25pt;height:8.25pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square' o:button="t">
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img border="0" height="11" src="file:///C:/Users/user/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.gif" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_24" width="15" /><!--[endif]--></span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Overview of the
Calvin cycle and carbon fixation<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 19.2pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 16.8pt;">
To
be more specific, carbon fixation produces an intermediate product, which is
then converted to the final carbohydrate products. The carbon skeletons
produced by photosynthesis are then variously used to form other organic
compounds, such as the building material<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">cellulose</span></a>, as
precursors for<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">lipid</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">amino acid</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>biosynthesis, or as a fuel in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">cellular respiration</span></a>. The
latter occurs not only in plants but also in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal" title="Animal"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">animals</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>when the energy from plants gets passed
through a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">food chain</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 19.2pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 16.8pt;">
The
fixation or reduction of carbon dioxide is a process in which<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">carbon dioxide</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>combines with a five-carbon sugar,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribulose_1,5-bisphosphate" title="Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">ribulose
1,5-bisphosphate</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(RuBP), to
yield two molecules of a three-carbon compound,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerate_3-phosphate" title="Glycerate 3-phosphate"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">glycerate
3-phosphate</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(GP), also
known as 3-phosphoglycerate (PGA). GP, in the presence of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">ATP</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NADPH" title="NADPH"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">NADPH</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>from the light-dependent stages, is
reduced to<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyceraldehyde_3-phosphate" title="Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(G3P). This product is also referred to
as 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PGAL" title="PGAL"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">PGAL</span></a>) or even as triose phosphate.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triose" title="Triose"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">Triose</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>is a 3-carbon sugar (see<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">carbohydrates</span></a>). Most (5
out of 6 molecules) of the G3P produced is used to regenerate RuBP so the
process can continue (see<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvin-Benson_cycle" title="Calvin-Benson cycle"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">Calvin-Benson cycle</span></a>). The 1 out of 6 molecules of the
triose phosphates not "recycled" often condense to form<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexose" title="Hexose"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">hexose</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>phosphates, which ultimately yield<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">sucrose</span></a>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starch" title="Starch"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">starch</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">cellulose</span></a>. The
sugars produced during carbon<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">metabolism</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>yield carbon skeletons that can be used
for other metabolic reactions like the production of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acids" title="Amino acids"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">amino acids</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipids" title="Lipids"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">lipids</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3 style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .05in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">Carbon concentrating mechanisms</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<h4 style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .05in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt;">a.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt;">On land</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background: #F9F9F9; line-height: 14.25pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #0b0080; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #F9F9F9; line-height: 16.8pt;">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HatchSlackpathway2.svg" title=""Enlarge" "><span style="color: #0b0080; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-no-proof: yes; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_28" o:spid="_x0000_i1029" type="#_x0000_t75"
href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HatchSlackpathway2.svg" title=""Enlarge""
style='width:11.25pt;height:8.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'
o:button="t">
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o:title="magnify-clip"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img border="0" height="11" src="file:///C:/Users/user/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.gif" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_28" width="15" /><!--[endif]--></span></a><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 8.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #F9F9F9; line-height: 16.8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 8.5pt;">Overview
of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C4_carbon_fixation" title="C4 carbon fixation"><span style="color: #0b0080; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt;">C4 carbon fixation</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 8.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
In hot and
dry conditions, plants close their<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stomata" title="Stomata"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">stomata</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>to prevent the loss of water. Under
these conditions, CO<sub>2</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>will
decrease, and oxygen gas, produced by the light reactions of photosynthesis,
will decrease in the stem, not leaves, causing an increase of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photorespiration" title="Photorespiration"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">photorespiration</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>by the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygenase" title="Oxygenase"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">oxygenase</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>activity of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubisco" title="Rubisco"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate
carboxylase/oxygenase</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and
decrease in carbon fixation. Some plants have<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">evolved</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>mechanisms to increase the CO<sub>2</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>concentration in the leaves under these
conditions.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C4_carbon_fixation" title="C4 carbon fixation"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">C<sub>4</sub></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"> </span></span><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">plants</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>chemically fix carbon dioxide in the
cells of the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesophyll" title="Mesophyll"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">mesophyll</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>by adding it to the three-carbon
molecule<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphoenolpyruvate" title="Phosphoenolpyruvate"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)</span></a>, a
reaction catalyzed by an enzyme called<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PEP_carboxylase" title="PEP carboxylase"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">PEP
carboxylase</span></a>, creating the four-carbon organic acid<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxaloacetic_acid" title="Oxaloacetic acid"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">oxaloacetic acid</span></a>.
Oxaloacetic acid or<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malate" title="Malate"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">malate</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>synthesized by this process is then
translocated to specialized<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundle_sheath" title="Bundle sheath"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">bundle
sheath</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>cells where
the enzyme<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RuBisCO" title="RuBisCO"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">RuBisCO</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and other Calvin cycle enzymes are
located, and where CO<sub>2</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>released by<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decarboxylation" title="Decarboxylation"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">decarboxylation</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>of the four-carbon acids is then fixed
by RuBisCO activity to the three-carbon sugar<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3-phosphoglyceric_acid" title="3-phosphoglyceric acid"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">3-phosphoglyceric acids</span></a>. The
physical separation of RuBisCO from the oxygen-generating light reactions
reduces photorespiration and increases CO<sub>2</sub>fixation and, thus,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthetic_capacity" title="Photosynthetic capacity"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">photosynthetic capacity</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>of the leaf.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosyntesis#cite_note-Taiz-20"><sup><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">[21]</span></sup></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>C<sub>4</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>plants can produce more sugar than C<sub>3</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>plants in conditions of high light and
temperature. Many important crop plants are C<sub>4</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>plants, including maize, sorghum,
sugarcane, and millet. Plants that do not use PEP-carboxylase in carbon
fixation are called<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C3_carbon_fixation" title="C3 carbon fixation"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">C<sub>3</sub></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"> </span></span><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">plants</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>because the primary carboxylation
reaction, catalyzed by RuBisCO, produces the three-carbon sugar
3-phosphoglyceric acids directly in the Calvin-Benson cycle. Over 90% of plants
use C<sub>3</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>carbon
fixation, compared to 3% that use C<sub>4</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>carbon fixation.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerophytes" title="Xerophytes"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">Xerophytes</span></a>, such as<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cacti" title="Cacti"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">cacti</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and most<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Succulents" title="Succulents"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">succulents</span></a>, also use
PEP carboxylase to capture carbon dioxide in a process called<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAM_photosynthesis" title="CAM photosynthesis"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">Crassulacean acid metabolism</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(CAM). In contrast to C<sub>4</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>metabolism, which<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>physically<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>separates the CO<sub>2</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>fixation to PEP from the Calvin cycle,
CAM<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>temporally<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>separates
these two processes. CAM plants have a different leaf anatomy from C<sub>3</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>plants, and fix the CO<sub>2</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>at night, when their stomata are open.
CAM plants store the CO<sub>2</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>mostly in
the form of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malic_acid" title="Malic acid"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">malic acid</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>via carboxylation of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphoenolpyruvate" title="Phosphoenolpyruvate"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">phosphoenolpyruvate</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>to oxaloacetate, which is then reduced
to malate. Decarboxylation of malate during the day releases CO<sub>2</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>inside the leaves, thus allowing carbon
fixation to 3-phosphoglycerate by RuBisCO. Sixteen thousand species of plants
use CAM.<o:p></o:p></div>
<h4 style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .05in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">In water</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">Cyanobacteria</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>possess<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboxysome" title="Carboxysome"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">carboxysomes</span></a>, which
increase the concentration of CO<sub>2</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>around RuBisCO to increase the rate of
photosynthesis. This operates by<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonic_anhydrase" title="Carbonic anhydrase"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">carbonic anhydrase</span></a>, producing hydrocarbonate ions (HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>–</sup>),
which are then pumped into the carboxysome, before being processed by a
different carbonic anhydrase to produce CO<sub>2</sub>.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrenoid" title="Pyrenoid"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">Pyrenoids</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae" title="Algae"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">algae</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hornwort" title="Hornwort"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: text1;">hornworts</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>also act to concentrate CO<sub>2</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>around rubisco.<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Order
and kinetics<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">The overall process of photosynthesis takes
place in four stages: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stage<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Description<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Time scale<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Energy
transfer in antenna chlorophyll (thylakoid membranes)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femtosecond" title="Femtosecond"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">femtosecond</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">to</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picosecond" title="Picosecond"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">picosecond</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Transfer
of electrons in photochemical reactions (thylakoid membranes)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picosecond" title="Picosecond"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">picosecond</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">to</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanosecond" title="Nanosecond"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">nanosecond</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">3<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Electron
transport chain and ATP synthesis (thylakoid membranes)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsecond" title="Microsecond"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">microsecond</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">to</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millisecond" title="Millisecond"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">millisecond</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">4<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Carbon
fixation and export of stable products<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millisecond" title="Millisecond"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">millisecond</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">to</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second" title="Second"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">second</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Efficiency<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant" title="Plant"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Plants</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">usually
convert light into</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_energy" title="Chemical energy"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">chemical
energy</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">with a</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">photosynthetic efficiency</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">of
3–6%.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Actual plants' photosynthetic efficiency
varies with the frequency of the light being converted, light intensity,
temperature and proportion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and can vary
from 0.1% to 8%.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">By comparison,</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaic_module" title="Photovoltaic module"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">solar panels</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">convert light into</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_energy" title="Electric energy"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">electric
energy</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">at an efficiency of approximately 6–20% for
mass-produced panels, and above 40% in laboratory devices.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoTitle">
Evolution<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg" title=""Enlarge" "><span style="color: #0b0080; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-no-proof: yes; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_32"
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<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 8.5pt;">Plant cells with visible chloroplasts (from a
moss,<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plagiomnium_affine&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Plagiomnium affine (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #a55858; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Plagiomnium
affine</span></a></i>)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Early
photosynthetic systems, such as those from</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_sulfur_bacteria" title="Green sulfur bacteria"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">green</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">and</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purple_sulfur_bacteria" title="Purple sulfur bacteria"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">purple sulfur</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">and</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroflexi_(phylum)" title="Chloroflexi (phylum)"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">green</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">and</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purple_bacteria" title="Purple bacteria"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">purple
nonsulfur bacteria</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, are thought to
have been anoxygenic, using various molecules as</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_donor" title="Electron donor"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">electron
donors</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">. Green and purple
sulfur bacteria are thought to have used</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">hydrogen</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">and</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">sulfur</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">as
an electron donor. Green nonsulfur bacteria used various</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">amino</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">and
other</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_acid" title="Organic acid"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">organic
acids</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">. Purple nonsulfur
bacteria used a variety of nonspecific organic molecules. The use of these
molecules is consistent with the geological evidence that the atmosphere was
highly</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reducing_environment" title="Reducing environment"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">reduced</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">at</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Earth#Hadean_and_Archaean" title="History of Earth"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">that time</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Fossils of what
are thought to be</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_filament" title="Protein filament"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">filamentous</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">photosynthetic
organisms have been dated at 3.4 billion years old. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">The main source of</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">oxygen</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">in
the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Earth's atmosphere"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">atmosphere</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">is</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_evolution" title="Oxygen evolution"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">oxygenic
photosynthesis</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, and its first
appearance is sometimes referred to as the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_catastrophe" title="Oxygen catastrophe"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">oxygen catastrophe</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">. Geological evidence suggests that oxygenic
photosynthesis, such as that in</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">cyanobacteria</span></a>, became important during the</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoproterozoic" title="Paleoproterozoic"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Paleoproterozoic</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">era
around 2 billion years ago. Modern photosynthesis in plants and most
photosynthetic prokaryotes is oxygenic. Oxygenic photosynthesis uses water as
an electron donor, which is</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox" title="Redox"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">oxidized</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">to
molecular oxygen (</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">O<sub>2</sub></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">) in the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthetic_reaction_center" title="Photosynthetic reaction center"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">photosynthetic reaction center</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.</span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h3 style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .05in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">Symbiosis and the origin of chloroplasts</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
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Several groups of animals have formed<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">symbiotic</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>relationships with
photosynthetic algae. These are most common in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral" title="Coral"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">corals</span></a>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">sponges</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">sea anemones</span></a>. It is
presumed that this is due to the particularly simple<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_plan" title="Body plan"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">body plans</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and large surface
areas of these animals compared to their volumes.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>In addition, a few marine<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">mollusks</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elysia_viridis" title="Elysia viridis"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">Elysia
viridis</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elysia_chlorotica" title="Elysia chlorotica"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">Elysia chlorotica</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>also maintain a symbiotic relationship with chloroplasts
they capture from the algae in their diet and then store in their bodies. This
allows the mollusks to survive solely by photosynthesis for several months at a
time.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Some of the genes from the plant<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">cell nucleus</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>have even been
transferred to the slugs, so that the chloroplasts can be supplied with
proteins that they need to survive. <o:p></o:p></div>
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An even closer form of symbiosis may explain the origin
of chloroplasts. Chloroplasts have many similarities with<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">photosynthetic bacteria</span></a>, including
a circular<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">chromosome</span></a>,
prokaryotic-type<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">ribosomes</span></a>, and similar
proteins in the photosynthetic reaction center.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>The<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosymbiotic_theory" title="Endosymbiotic theory"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">endosymbiotic
theory</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>suggests that
photosynthetic bacteria were acquired (by<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocytosis" title="Endocytosis"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">endocytosis</span></a>)
by early<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">eukaryotic</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>cells to form the
first<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant" title="Plant"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">plant</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>cells. Therefore, chloroplasts may be photosynthetic
bacteria that adapted to life inside plant cells. Like<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrion" title="Mitochondrion"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">mitochondria</span></a>,
chloroplasts still possess their own DNA, separate from the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_DNA" title="Nuclear DNA"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">nuclear DNA</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>of their plant
host cells and the genes in this chloroplast DNA resemble those in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">cyanobacteria</span></a>.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>DNA in chloroplasts codes for<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox" title="Redox"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">redox</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>proteins such as photosynthetic reaction centers. The<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoRR_Hypothesis" title="CoRR Hypothesis"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">CoRR Hypothesis</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>proposes that this<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>Co</b>-location is
required for<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>R</b>edox<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><b>R</b>egulation.<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3 style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .05in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">Cyanobacteria and the evolution of photosynthesis</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
The biochemical capacity to use water as the source for
electrons in photosynthesis evolved once, in a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">common ancestor</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>of extant<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">cyanobacteria</span></a>. The
geological record indicates that this transforming event took place early in
Earth's history, at least 2450–2320 million years ago (Ma), and, it is
speculated, much earlier.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Available evidence
from geobiological studies of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archean" title="Archean"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">Archean</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(>2500 Ma)<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">sedimentary rocks</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>indicates that life existed 3500 Ma, but the question of
when oxygenic photosynthesis evolved is still unanswered. A clear
paleontological window on cyanobacterial<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">evolution</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>opened about 2000
Ma, revealing an already-diverse biota of blue-greens.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">Cyanobacteria</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>remained principal<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_producers" title="Primary producers"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">primary producers</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>throughout the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proterozoic_Eon" title="Proterozoic Eon"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">Proterozoic Eon</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(2500–543 Ma), in part because the redox structure of the
oceans favored photoautotrophs capable of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">nitrogen fixation</span></a>.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">Green algae</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>joined blue-greens
as major primary producers on<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">continental shelves</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>near the end of the<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">Proterozoic</span></a>, but only
with the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">Mesozoic</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(251–65 Ma)
radiations of dinoflagellates, coccolithophorids, and diatoms did<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">primary production</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>in marine shelf waters take modern form. Cyanobacteria
remain critical to<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">marine ecosystems</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>as primary producers in oceanic gyres, as agents of
biological nitrogen fixation, and, in modified form, as the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">plastids</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>of marine algae. <o:p></o:p></div>
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A 2010 study by researchers at<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Aviv_University" title="Tel Aviv University"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">Tel Aviv University</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>discovered that the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriental_hornet" title="Oriental hornet"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">Oriental hornet</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(Vespa
orientalis) converts sunlight into electric power using a pigment called<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xanthopterin" title="Xanthopterin"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">xanthopterin</span></a>.
This is the first scientific evidence of a member of the animal kingdom
engaging in photosynthesis. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<div class="MsoTitle">
Discovery<o:p></o:p></div>
</div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Although some of the steps in photosynthesis
are still not completely understood, the overall photosynthetic equation has
been known since the 19th century.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_van_Helmont" title="Jan van Helmont"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Jan
van Helmont</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">began the research of the process in the
mid-17th century when he carefully measured the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass" title="Mass"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">mass</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">of
the soil used by a plant and the mass of the plant as it grew. After noticing
that the soil mass changed very little, he hypothesized that the mass of the
growing plant must come from the water, the only substance he added to the
potted plant. His hypothesis was partially accurate — much of the gained mass
also comes from carbon dioxide as well as water. However, this was a signaling
point to the idea that the bulk of a plant's</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">biomass</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">comes
from the inputs of photosynthesis, not the soil itself.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Joseph
Priestley</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, a chemist and
minister, discovered that, when he isolated a volume of air under an inverted
jar, and burned a candle in it, the candle would burn out very quickly, much
before it ran out of wax. He further discovered that a mouse could similarly
"injure" air. He then showed that the air that had been
"injured" by the candle and the mouse could be restored by a plant.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">In 1778,</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Ingenhousz" title="Jan Ingenhousz"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Jan
Ingenhousz</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, court physician
to the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria" title="Austria"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Austrian</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Empress,
repeated Priestley's experiments. He discovered that it was the influence of
sunlight on the plant that could cause it to revive a mouse in a matter of
hours.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">In 1796,</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Senebier" title="Jean Senebier"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Jean
Senebier</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, a Swiss pastor,
botanist, and naturalist, demonstrated that green plants consume carbon dioxide
and release oxygen under the influence of light. Soon afterward,</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas-Th%C3%A9odore_de_Saussure" title="Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">showed
that the increase in mass of the plant as it grows could not be due only to
uptake of CO<sub>2</sub></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">but also to the incorporation of water. Thus,
the basic reaction by which photosynthesis is used to produce food (such as
glucose) was outlined.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelis_Van_Niel" title="Cornelis Van Niel"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Cornelis
Van Niel</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">made key discoveries explaining the chemistry
of photosynthesis. By studying</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purple_sulfur_bacteria" title="Purple sulfur bacteria"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">purple sulfur bacteria</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">and
green bacteria he was the first scientist to demonstrate that photosynthesis is
a light-dependent</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox" title="Redox"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">redox</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">reaction,
in which hydrogen reduces carbon dioxide.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Robert Emerson discovered two light reactions
by testing plant productivity using different wavelengths of light. With the
red alone, the light reactions were suppressed. When blue and red were
combined, the output was much more substantial. Thus, there were two
photosystems, one absorbing up to 600 nm wavelengths, the other up to 700
nm. The former is known as PSII, the latter is PSI. PSI contains only
chlorophyll a, PSII contains primarily chlorophyll a with most of the available
chlorophyll b, among other pigment. These include phycobilins, which are the
red and blue pigments of red and blue algae respectively, and fucoxanthol for
brown algae and diatoms. The process is most productive when absorption of
quanta are equal in both the PSII and PSI, assuring that input energy from the
antenna complex is divided between the PSI and PSII system, which in turn
powers the photochemistry. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hill_(plant_biochemist)" title="Robert Hill (plant biochemist)"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Robert Hill</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">thought
that a complex of reactions consisting of an intermediate to cytochrome b<sub>6</sub></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">(now
a plastoquinone), another is from cytochrome f to a step in the
carbohydrate-generating mechanisms. These are linked by plastoquinone, which
does require energy to reduce cytochrome f for it is a sufficient reductant.
Further experiments to prove that the oxygen developed during the
photosynthesis of green plants came from water, were performed by Hill in 1937
and 1939. He showed that isolated</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">chloroplasts</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">give
off oxygen in the presence of unnatural reducing agents like</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron" title="Iron"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">iron</span></a></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxalate" title="Oxalate"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">oxalate</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">,</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferricyanide" title="Ferricyanide"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">ferricyanide</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">or</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzoquinone" title="Benzoquinone"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">benzoquinone</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">after
exposure to light. The Hill reaction is as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">2 H<sub>2</sub>O + 2 A + (light,
chloroplasts) → 2 AH<sub>2</sub></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">+ O<sub>2</sub><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">where A is the electron acceptor. Therefore,
in light, the electron acceptor is reduced and oxygen is evolved.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Ruben" title="Sam Ruben"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Samuel
Ruben</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">and</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Kamen" title="Martin Kamen"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Martin
Kamen</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">used</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">radioactive
isotopes</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">to determine that the oxygen liberated in
photosynthesis came from the water.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melvin_Calvin" title="Melvin Calvin"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Melvin
Calvin</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">and</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Benson" title="Andrew Benson"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Andrew
Benson</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, along with</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bassham" title="James Bassham"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">James
Bassham</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, elucidated the
path of carbon assimilation (the photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle) in
plants. The carbon reduction cycle is known as the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvin_cycle" title="Calvin cycle"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Calvin
cycle</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">, which ignores
the contribution of Bassham and Benson. Many scientists refer to the cycle as
the Calvin-Benson Cycle, Benson-Calvin, and some even call it the
Calvin-Benson-Bassham (or CBB) Cycle.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Nobel
Prize</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">-winning scientist</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolph_A._Marcus" title="Rudolph A. Marcus"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Rudolph
A. Marcus</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">was able to discover the function and
significance of the electron transport chain.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Heinrich_Warburg" title="Otto Heinrich Warburg"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Otto Heinrich Warburg</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">and</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dean_Burk" title="Dean Burk"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Dean
Burk</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">discovered the I-quantum photosynthesis
reaction that splits the CO<sub>2</sub>, activated by the respiration. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louis_N.M._Duysens&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Louis N.M. Duysens (page does not exist)"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Louis N.M. Duysens</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">and</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jan_Amesz&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Jan Amesz (page does not exist)"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Jan Amesz</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">discovered
that chlorophyll a will absorb one light, oxidize cytochrome f, chlorophyll a
(and other pigments) will absorb another light, but will reduce this same
oxidized cytochrome, stating the two light reactions are in series.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14.5pt;">Factors</span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<span style="color: #0b0080; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leaf_1_web.jpg" title=""Enlarge" "><span style="color: #0b0080; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-no-proof: yes; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_36" o:spid="_x0000_i1025"
type="#_x0000_t75" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leaf_1_web.jpg"
title=""Enlarge"" style='width:11.25pt;height:8.25pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square' o:button="t">
<v:fill o:detectmouseclick="t"/>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\user\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image003.gif"
o:title="magnify-clip"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img border="0" height="11" src="file:///C:/Users/user/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.gif" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_36" width="15" /><!--[endif]--></span></a><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 8.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 8.5pt;">The</span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 8.5pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">leaf</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 8.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 8.5pt;">is the primary site of photosynthesis in
plants.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">There are three main factors affecting
photosynthesis and several corollary factors. The three main are:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Light</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irradiance" title="Irradiance"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">irradiance</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">and</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">wavelength</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Carbon
dioxide</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentration" title="Concentration"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">concentration</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Temperature</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h3 style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .05in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">Light intensity (irradiance), wavelength and temperature</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
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In the early 20th century,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Blackman" title="Frederick Blackman"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">Frederick Frost Blackman</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>along with<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">Albert Einstein</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>investigated the effects of light intensity (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irradiance" title="Irradiance"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">irradiance</span></a>) and
temperature on the rate of carbon assimilation.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">At constant
temperature, the rate of carbon assimilation varies with irradiance, initially
increasing as the irradiance increases. However, at higher irradiance, this
relationship no longer holds and the rate of carbon assimilation reaches a
plateau.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">At constant
irradiance, the rate of carbon assimilation increases as the temperature is
increased over a limited range. This effect is seen only at high irradiance
levels. At low irradiance, increasing the temperature has little influence on
the rate of carbon assimilation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 19.2pt;">
These two experiments illustrate vital points: First, from<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research" title="Research"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">research</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>it is known that,
in general,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photochemical" title="Photochemical"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">photochemical</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>reactions are not affected by<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">temperature</span></a>. However,
these experiments clearly show that temperature affects the rate of carbon
assimilation, so there must be two sets of reactions in the full process of
carbon assimilation. These are, of course, the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-dependent_reaction" title="Light-dependent reaction"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">light-dependent
'photochemical'</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>stage and the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-independent_reaction" title="Light-independent reaction"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">light-independent,
temperature-dependent</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>stage. Second,
Blackman's experiments illustrate the concept of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limiting_factor" title="Limiting factor"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">limiting factors</span></a>. Another
limiting factor is the wavelength of light. Cyanobacteria, which reside several
meters underwater, cannot receive the correct wavelengths required to cause
photoinduced charge separation in conventional photosynthetic pigments. To
combat this problem, a series of proteins with different pigments surround the
reaction center. This unit is called a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phycobilisome" title="Phycobilisome"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">phycobilisome</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3 style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .05in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">Carbon dioxide levels and photorespiration</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-indent: .25in;">
As carbon dioxide concentrations rise, the rate at which
sugars are made by the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-independent_reaction" title="Light-independent reaction"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">light-independent
reactions</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>increases until limited by other factors.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RuBisCO" title="RuBisCO"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">RuBisCO</span></a>,
the enzyme that captures carbon dioxide in the light-independent reactions, has
a binding affinity for both carbon dioxide and oxygen. When the concentration
of carbon dioxide is high, RuBisCO will<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fixation" title="Carbon fixation"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">fix carbon dioxide</span></a>. However,
if the carbon dioxide concentration is low, RuBisCO will bind oxygen instead of
carbon dioxide. This process, called<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photorespiration" title="Photorespiration"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">photorespiration</span></a>, uses
energy, but does not produce sugars.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt;">
RuBisCO oxygenase
activity is disadvantageous to plants for several reasons:<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">One product of
oxygenase activity is phosphoglycolate (2 carbon) instead of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3-phosphoglycerate" title="3-phosphoglycerate"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">3-phosphoglycerate</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">(3 carbon).
Phosphoglycolate cannot be metabolized by the Calvin-Benson cycle and
represents carbon lost from the cycle. A high oxygenase activity, therefore,
drains the sugars that are required to recycle ribulose 5-bisphosphate and for
the continuation of the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvin-Benson_cycle" title="Calvin-Benson cycle"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">Calvin-Benson cycle</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Phosphoglycolate
is quickly metabolized to glycolate that is toxic to a plant at a high
concentration; it inhibits photosynthesis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Salvaging
glycolate is an energetically expensive process that uses the glycolate
pathway, and only 75% of the carbon is returned to the Calvin-Benson cycle as
3-phosphoglycerate. The reactions also produce<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">ammonia</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">(NH<sub>3</sub>),
which is able to<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_diffusion" title="Molecular diffusion"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">diffuse</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">out of the plant,
leading to a loss of nitrogen.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">A highly
simplified summary is:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">2 glycolate + ATP
→ 3-phosphoglycerate + carbon dioxide + ADP + NH<sub>3</sub><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt;">
The
salvaging pathway for the products of RuBisCO oxygenase activity is more
commonly known as<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photorespiration" title="Photorespiration"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">photorespiration</span></a>, since it
is characterized by light-dependent oxygen consumption and the release of
carbon dioxide.<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div align="center" class="MsoTitle" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-size: 20pt;">Photosynthesis Experiments Using Leaf Discs </span></b><span style="font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Objectives: </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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1. Reinforce methods of experimental design and statistical
analysis. <o:p></o:p></div>
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2. Test some parameters that might have an effect on
photosynthesis <o:p></o:p></div>
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3. Learn how leaf anatomy is adapted to optimize photosynthetic
efficiency. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">I. Introduction: </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Photosynthesis is the process by which light
energy is converted into chemical bond energy by autotrophic organisms. During
the light dependent reactions of photosynthesis light energy is used to
generate ATP and to reduce NADP<sup><span style="mso-text-raise: 4.0pt; position: relative; top: -4.0pt;">+ </span></sup>to NADPH. During the light independent
reactions of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is synthesized into glucose using
chemical bond energy stored in ATP and the reducing power of NADPH. In
eukaryotic autotrophs, both sets of reactions take place in a specialized
organelle, the chloroplast. In autotrophic bacteria (cyanobacteria) the light
dependent reactions occur on the plasma membrane and the light independent
reactions occur in the liquid cytoplasm. <o:p></o:p></div>
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The entire process of photosynthesis can be summarized: <o:p></o:p></div>
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LIGHT <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2 <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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The rate at which photosynthesis occurs might
depend upon both the <u>quality </u>(i.e. wavelength or color) and <u>quantity </u>(i.e.
brightness) of light, as well as other parameters. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<b>Leaf Anatomy: </b>In most plants, the primary organ in which
photosynthesis occurs is the leaf. In your experiment today, you will
eventually be using portions of leaves to test hypotheses about photosynthesis.
First we will examine leaf anatomy. <o:p></o:p></div>
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With a microscope,
examine a prepared slide of a cross-section of a leaf. The prepared slide may
be labeled: "Typical dicot leaf" or "privet leaf" or "<i>Ligustrum
</i>leaf, c.s." <o:p></o:p></div>
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OBSERVE the cross-section on MEDIUM (100x) or
HIGH (400x) power. <o:p></o:p></div>
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The cross-section of
the leaf is several cell layers thick. Each layer of cells has a different
function and a different morphology ('form fits function'). <o:p></o:p></div>
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In the
cross-section, the uppermost and bottom most layers of cells are the <b>upper
epidermis </b>and <b>lower epidermis, </b>respectively. Each of these epidermal
layers is just one cell thick. These cells have relatively thick walls and they
secrete a layer of wax called the <b>cuticle </b>on the surface of the leaf.
What do you think would be a function of the cuticle? <o:p></o:p></div>
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Observe the cells
which make up the lower epidermis; you may see gaps in this array of cells.
These gaps are called <b>stomata</b>; each one (a stoma) is surrounded by two <b>guard
cells</b>. Each pair of guard cells is able to open and close a stoma, thus
regulating the entrance and exit of air, and thus of oxygen , carbon dioxide,
and water. For example, the stomata may close if the leaf becomes too hot or
dry, in order to stop water loss from the leaf. Air which enters the leaf
through the stomata first encounters a layer of cells called the <b>spongy
parenchyma</b>. The spongy parenchyma is so-named because, like a sponge, it
has relatively large air spaces amongst the cells. In the leaf, these spaces
allow for the circulation of air throughout the leaf. <o:p></o:p></div>
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Above the spongy
parenchyma lies a layer of cells that are rectangular and tightly packed. This
layer is called the <b>palisade parenchyma</b>. Can you tell which layer of
parenchyma has more chloroplasts per cell ? <o:p></o:p></div>
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Draw
and label palisade and spongy parenchyma, epidermis, air space, stomata,
cuticle. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">II. Methods </span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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1. Cut 5 discs from
the green part of a leaf of the <i>Dieffenbachia seguine </i>plant with a paper
punch. Handle them carefully; the discs consist of live cells, and in this
condition they can be easily damaged. <o:p></o:p></div>
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2. Put the 5 discs
in the syringe, and replace the plunger. <o:p></o:p></div>
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3. Fill the syringe
with buffer. The buffer is 0.1 M NaHCO<sub><span style="mso-text-raise: -6.0pt; position: relative; top: 6.0pt;">3 </span></sub>(0.1 moles [8.4 g] of sodium
bicarbonate, or baking soda, dissolved in 1 liter of water). The buffer has
already had most of the dissolved gasses (mostly air) removed from it. Sodium
bicarbonate dissociates into a sodium ion and a hydrogen carbonate ion in
water, like this: <o:p></o:p></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -.4pt; text-align: center;">
NaHCO<sub><span style="mso-text-raise: -5.0pt; position: relative; top: 5.0pt;">3 </span></sub><span style="font-family: Wingdings;">
</span>Na<sup><span style="mso-text-raise: 5.0pt; position: relative; top: -5.0pt;">+ </span></sup><b>+ </b>HCO<sub><span style="mso-text-raise: -5.0pt; position: relative; top: 5.0pt;">3</span></sub><sup><span style="mso-text-raise: 6.0pt; position: relative; top: -6.0pt;">- </span></sup><o:p></o:p></div>
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<sup><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; position: relative; top: -6pt;">Hydrogen carbonate in the presence of hydrogen
ions can from carbonic acid, H</span></sup><sub><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; position: relative; top: 5pt;">2</span></sub><sup><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; position: relative; top: -6pt;">CO</span></sup><sub><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; position: relative; top: 5pt;">3 </span></sub><sup><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; position: relative; top: -6pt;">which can break down into carbon dioxide and
water. </span></sup><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -.4pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">CO<sub><span style="mso-text-raise: -5.0pt; position: relative; top: 5.0pt;">2 </span></sub><b>+ </b>H<sub><span style="mso-text-raise: -5.0pt; position: relative; top: 5.0pt;">2</span></sub>O </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">H<sub><span style="mso-text-raise: -5.0pt; position: relative; top: 5.0pt;">2</span></sub>CO<sub><span style="mso-text-raise: -5.0pt; position: relative; top: 5.0pt;">3 </span></sub></span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">H<sup><span style="mso-text-raise: 5.0pt; position: relative; top: -5.0pt;">+ </span></sup><b>+ </b>HCO<sub><span style="mso-text-raise: -5.0pt; position: relative; top: 5.0pt;">3</span></sub><sup><span style="mso-text-raise: 5.0pt; position: relative; top: -5.0pt;">- </span></sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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4. Expel any
airspace in the syringe. <o:p></o:p></div>
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5.
Seal the tip of the syringe by pressing it hard against a rubber stopper or
your finger. Pressing against a rubber stopper gives a better seal. Now back
off the plunger, swirl the disks, and immediately expel any new air space. Gas
will have expanded and moved out of the leaf discs. <o:p></o:p></div>
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6. Repeat step 5
until no more bubbles form, and the leaf discs all sink. Once all the discs
have sunk they can be used in your experiment. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
7. The syringe can stand on its plunger. Place it in the light
source provided. Watch to see whether the leaf discs rise, and record in
seconds how long it takes for each one to rise. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Answer the following questions about what you have just done: <o:p></o:p></div>
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At first, why do the leaf discs float? <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
When you pull back on the plunger, where have the bubbles come
from? <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Why do the leaf discs eventually sink in the syringe? <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Why do the leaf discs rise when placed in the light? <o:p></o:p></div>
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What is the purpose of the sodium bicarbonate in this experiment? <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Now that you have familiarized yourself with the methods, examine
these problems: </b><o:p></o:p></div>
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<b>Problem 1</b>: Is the rate of photosynthesis higher under bright light than
under dim light? <o:p></o:p></div>
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Describe an experiment that could be designed to answer this
question. After designing and carrying out your experiment, take what you have
learned about the methods, and move on to Problem 2. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<b>Problem 2</b>: Is pigmentation necessary for photosynthesis ? <o:p></o:p></div>
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Describe and carry out an experiment to answer this question. <o:p></o:p></div>
<h4>
<span style="font-weight: normal;">III. Results </span><o:p></o:p></h4>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Put data in a data table as you collect it. Templates for
statistical tests are available in class and at the Biology Department's
Statistics web site : (<u>www.radford.edu/~biol-web/stats.html</u>). Study the
examples for entering data in the spreadsheet template. Open the template and
enter your data as instructed. <o:p></o:p></div>
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Graph the data. Describe your results. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">IV. Conclusions</span></b>. <o:p></o:p></div>
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State whether or not your hypotheses were
supported. Tell about how your experiment could be improved. What other factors
might affect photosynthesis that could be tested with this method?<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>Lolahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04420217654620250583noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5649270447027923698.post-65908382589027114052012-03-02T21:10:00.002-08:002012-03-02T21:10:59.119-08:00Fotosintesis<div style="border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in 0in 4.0pt 0in;"><div class="MsoTitle" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;">Pengertian<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><b>Fotosintesis</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(dari<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Yunani" title="Bahasa Yunani"><span style="color: black;">bahasa Yunani</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="polytonic">φώτο-</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>[fó̱to-], "cahaya," dan<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="polytonic">σύνθεσις</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>[sýnthesis], "menggabungkan", "penggabungan") adalah suatu proses<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biokimia" title="Biokimia"><span style="color: black;">biokimia</span></a> pembentukan zat makanan<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbohidrat" title="Karbohidrat"><span style="color: black;">karbohidrat</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>yang dilakukan oleh<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumbuhan" title="Tumbuhan"><span style="color: black;">tumbuhan</span></a>, terutama tumbuhan yang mengandung zat hijau daun atau<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klorofil" title="Klorofil"><span style="color: black;">klorofil</span></a>. Selain tumbuhan berklorofil, makhluk hidup non-klorofil lain yang berfotosintesis adalah<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alga" title="Alga"><span style="color: black;">alga</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>dan beberapa jenis<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakteri" title="Bakteri"><span style="color: black;">bakteri</span></a>. Organisme ini berfotosintesis dengan menggunakan zat hara,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbon_dioksida" title="Karbon dioksida"><span style="color: black;">karbon dioksida</span></a>, dan<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air" title="Air"><span style="color: black;">air</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>serta bantuan energi cahaya<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matahari" title="Matahari"><span style="color: black;">matahari</span></a>. <o:p></o:p></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">Organisme fotosintesis disebut<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotoautotrof" title="Fotoautotrof"><span style="color: black;">fotoautotrof</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>karena mereka dapat membuat makanannya sendiri. Pada tanaman, alga, dan<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria"><span style="color: black;">cyanobacteria</span></a>, fotosintesis dilakukan dengan memanfaatkan karbondioksida dan<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air" title="Air"><span style="color: black;">air</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>serta menghasilkan produk buangan<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oksigen" title="Oksigen"><span style="color: black;">oksigen</span></a>. Fotosintesis sangat penting bagi semua<a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kehidupan" title="Kehidupan"><span style="color: black;">kehidupan aerobik di Bumi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>karena selain untuk menjaga tingkat normal oksigen di<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosfer" title="Atmosfer"><span style="color: black;">atmosfer</span></a>, fotosintesis juga merupakan sumber energi bagi hampir semua kehidupan di Bumi, baik secara langsung (melalui<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Produksi_primer" title="Produksi primer"><span style="color: black;">produksi primer</span></a>) maupun tidak langsung (sebagai sumber utama energi dalam makanan mereka),<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>kecuali pada organisme<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kemoautotrof&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Kemoautotrof (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">kemoautotrof</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>yang hidup di bebatuan atau di<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lubang_angin_hidrotermal&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Lubang angin hidrotermal (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">lubang angin hidrotermal</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>di laut yang dalam. Tingkat penyerapan energi oleh fotosintesis sangat tinggi, yaitu sekitar 100 <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Terawatt&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Terawatt (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">terawat</span></a>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>atau kira-kira enam kali lebih besar daripada<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sumber_daya_dan_konsumsi_energi_Dunia&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Sumber daya dan konsumsi energi Dunia (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">konsumsi energi peradaban manusia</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Selain energi, fotosintesis juga menjadi sumber karbon bagi semua<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senyawa_organik" title="Senyawa organik"><span style="color: black;">senyawa organik</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>dalam tubuh organisme. Fotosintesis mengubah sekitar 100–115 <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Petagram&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Petagram (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">petagram</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>karbon menjadi<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomassa" title="Biomassa"><span style="color: black;">biomassa</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>setiap tahunnya. <sup><o:p></o:p></sup></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">Meskipun fotosintesis dapat berlangsung dalam berbagai cara pada berbagai spesies, beberapa cirinya selalu sama. Misalnya, prosesnya selalu dimulai dengan energi cahaya diserap oleh<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein" title="Protein"><span style="color: black;">protein</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>berklorofil yang disebut<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pusat_reaksi_fotosintesis&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Pusat reaksi fotosintesis (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">pusat reaksi fotosintesis</span></a>. Pada tumbuhan, protein ini tersimpan di dalam<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organel" title="Organel"><span style="color: black;">organel</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>yang disebut<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kloroplas" title="Kloroplas"><span style="color: black;">kloroplas</span></a>, sedangkan pada bakteri, protein ini tersimpan pada<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membran_plasma" title="Membran plasma"><span style="color: black;">membran plasma</span></a>. Sebagian dari energi cahaya yang dikumpulkan oleh klorofil disimpan dalam bentuk<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosin_trifosfat" title="Adenosin trifosfat"><span style="color: black;">adenosin trifosfat</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(ATP). Sisa energinya digunakan untuk memisahkan<a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron"><span style="color: black;">elektron</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>dari zat seperti air. Elektron ini digunakan dalam reaksi yang mengubah karbondioksia menjadi senyawa organik. Pada tumbuhan, alga, dan cyanobacteria, ini dilakukan dalam suatu rangkaian reaksi yang disebut<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siklus_Calvin&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Siklus Calvin (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">siklus Calvin</span></a>, namun rangkaian reaksi yang berbeda ditemukan pada beberapa bakteri, misalnya<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siklus_Krebs_terbalik&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Siklus Krebs terbalik (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">siklus Krebs terbalik</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>pada<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorobium" title="Chlorobium"><span style="color: black;">Chlorobium</span></a>. Banyak organisme fotosintesis memiliki<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptasi" title="Adaptasi"><span style="color: black;">adaptasi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>yang mengonsentrasikan atau menyimpan karbondioksida. Ini membantu mengurangi proses boros yang disebut<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotorespirasi" title="Fotorespirasi"><span style="color: black;">fotorespirasi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>yang dapat menghabiskan sebagian dari gula yang dihasilkan selama fotosintesis.<o:p></o:p></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">Organisme fotosintesis pertama kemungkinan<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolusi" title="Evolusi"><span style="color: black;">berevolusi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>sekitar<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://toolserver.org/~verisimilus/Timeline/Timeline.php?Ma=3.500"><span style="color: black;">3.500</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="nourlexpansion">juta tahun silam</span>, pada masa awal<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sejarah_evolusi_kehidupan&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Sejarah evolusi kehidupan (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">sejarah evolusi kehidupan</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>ketika semua bentuk kehidupan di Bumi merupakan<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikroorganisme" title="Mikroorganisme"><span style="color: black;">mikroorganisme</span></a>dan atmosfer memiliki sejumlah besar karbondioksida. Makhluk hidup ketika itu sangat mungkin memanfaatkan<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidrogen" title="Hidrogen"><span style="color: black;">hidrogen</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>atau<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidrogen_sulfida" title="Hidrogen sulfida"><span style="color: black;">hidrogen sulfida</span></a>--bukan air--sebagai sumber elektron.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Cyanobacteria muncul kemudian, sekitar<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://toolserver.org/~verisimilus/Timeline/Timeline.php?Ma=3.000"><span style="color: black;">3.000</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="nourlexpansion">juta tahun silam</span>, dan secara drastis mengubah Bumi ketika mereka mulai<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Katastropi_oksigen&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Katastropi oksigen (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">mengoksigenkan atmosfer</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>pada sekitar<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://toolserver.org/~verisimilus/Timeline/Timeline.php?Ma=2.400"><span style="color: black;">2.400</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="nourlexpansion">juta tahun silam</span>.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Atmosfer baru ini memungkinkan<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evolusi_multisel&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Evolusi multisel (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">evolusi kehidupan kompleks</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>seperi<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protista" title="Protista"><span style="color: black;">protista</span></a>. Pada akhirnya, tidak kurang dari satu miliar tahun silam, salah satu protista membentuk<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simbiosis" title="Simbiosis"><span style="color: black;">hubungan simbiosis</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>dengan satu cyanobacteria dan menghasilkan nenek moyang dari seluruh tumbuhan dan alga.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Kloroplas pada Tumbuhan modern merupakan keturunan dari cyanobacteria yang bersimbiosis ini.<o:p></o:p></div><div style="border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in 0in 4.0pt 0in;"><div class="MsoTitle" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;">Sejarah Penemuan</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Meskipun masih ada langkah-langkah dalam fotosintesis yang belum dipahami, persamaan umum fotosintesis telah diketahui sejak tahun 1800-an. Pada awal tahun 1600-an, seorang dokter dan ahli kimia, </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jan_van_Helmont&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Jan van Helmont (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Jan van Helmont</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, seorang </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flandria" title="Flandria"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Flandria</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> (sekarang bagian dari </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgia" title="Belgia"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Belgia</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">), melakukan percobaan untuk mengetahui faktor apa yang menyebabkan massa tumbuhan bertambah dari waktu ke waktu. Dari penelitiannya, Helmont menyimpulkan bahwa massa tumbuhan bertambah hanya karena pemberian air. Namun, pada tahun </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/1727" title="1727"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">1727</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, ahli botani </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inggris" title="Inggris"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Inggris</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stephen_Hales&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Stephen Hales (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Stephen Hales</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> berhipotesis bahwa pasti ada faktor lain selain air yang berperan. Ia mengemukakan bahwa sebagian makanan tumbuhan berasal dari atmosfer dan cahaya yang terlibat dalam proses tertentu. Pada saat itu belum diketahui bahwa udara mengandung unsur gas yang berlainan. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pada tahun 1771, </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Joseph Priestley</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, seorang ahli kimia dan pendeta berkebangsaan Inggris, menemukan bahwa ketika ia menutupi sebuah </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilin" title="Lilin"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">lilin</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> menyala dengan sebuah </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Toples&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Toples (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">toples</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> terbalik, nyalanya akan mati sebelum lilinnya habis terbakar. Ia kemudian menemukan bila ia meletakkan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tikus" title="Tikus"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">tikus</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> dalam toples terbalik bersama lilin, tikus itu akan mati lemas. Dari kedua percobaan itu, Priestley menyimpulkan bahwa nyala lilin telah "merusak" </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Udara" title="Udara"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">udara</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> dalam toples itu dan menyebabkan matinya tikus. Ia kemudian menunjukkan bahwa udara yang telah “dirusak” oleh lilin tersebut dapat “dipulihkan” oleh tumbuhan. Ia juga menunjukkan bahwa tikus dapat tetap hidup dalam toples tertutup asalkan di dalamnya juga terdapat tumbuhan. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pada tahun </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/1778" title="1778"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">1778</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Ingenhousz" title="Jan Ingenhousz"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Jan Ingenhousz</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, dokter kerajaan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria" title="Austria"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Austria</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, mengulangi eksperimen Priestley. Ia memperlihatkan bahwa cahaya Matahari berpengaruh pada tumbuhan sehingga dapat "memulihkan" udara yang "rusak". Ia juga menemukan bahwa tumbuhan juga 'mengotori udara' pada keadaan gelap sehingga ia lalu menyarankan agar tumbuhan dikeluarkan dari rumah pada malam hari untuk mencegah kemungkinan meracuni penghuninya. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Akhirnya di tahun </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/1782" title="1782"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">1782</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean_Senebier&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Jean Senebier (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Jean Senebier</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, seorang </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pastor" title="Pastor"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">pastor</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perancis" title="Perancis"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Perancis</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, menunjukkan bahwa udara yang "dipulihkan" dan "merusak" itu adalah karbon dioksida yang diserap oleh tumbuhan dalam fotosintesis. Tidak lama kemudian, </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theodore_de_Saussure&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Theodore de Saussure (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Theodore de Saussure</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> berhasil menunjukkan hubungan antara hipotesis </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stephen_Hale&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Stephen Hale (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Stephen Hale</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> dengan percobaan-percobaan "pemulihan" udara. Ia menemukan bahwa peningkatan massa tumbuhan bukan hanya karena penyerapan karbon dioksida, tetapi juga oleh pemberian air. Melalui serangkaian eksperimen inilah akhirnya para ahli berhasil menggambarkan persamaan umum dari fotosintesis yang menghasilkan makanan (seperti glukosa).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cornelis_Van_Niel&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Cornelis Van Niel (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Cornelis Van Niel</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> menghasilkan penemuan penting yang menjelaskan proses kimia fotosintesis. Dengan mempelajari </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bakteri_sulfur_ungu&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Bakteri sulfur ungu (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">bakteri sulfur ungu</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> dan bakteri hijau, dia menjadi ilmuwan pertama yang menunukkan bahwa fotosintesis merupakan reaksi </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redoks" title="Redoks"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">redoks</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> yang bergantung pada cahaya, yang mana hidrogen mengurangi karbondioksida.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Emerson&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Robert Emerson (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Robert Emerson</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> menemukan dua reaksi cahaya dengan menguji produktivitas Tumbuhan menggunakan cahaya dengan panjang gelombang yang berbeda-beda. Dengan hanya cahaya merah, reaksi cahayanya dapat ditekan. Ketika cahaya biru dan merah digabungkan, hasilnya menjadi lebih banyak. Dengan demikian, ada dua </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Protosistem&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Protosistem (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">protosistem</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, yang satu menyerap sampai panjang gelombang 600 nm, yang lainnya sampai 700 nm. Yang pertama dikenal sebagai PSII, yang kedua PSI. PSI hanya mengandung klorofil a, PAII mengandung terutama klorofil a dan klorofil b, di antara pigmen lainnya. Ini meliputi </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fikobilin&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Fikobilin (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">fikobilin</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, yang merupakan pigmen merah dan biru pada alga merah dan biru, serta </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fukoksantol&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Fukoksantol (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">fukoksantol</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> untuk alga coklat dan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">diatom</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">. Proses ini paling produktif ketika penyerapan kuantanya seimbang untuk PSII dan PSI, menjamin bahwa masukan energi dari kompleks antena terbagi antara sistem PSI dan PSII, yang pada gilirannya menggerakan fotosintesis. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Hill_(bikimiawan_Tumbuhan)&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Robert Hill (bikimiawan Tumbuhan) (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Robert Hill</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> berpikir bahwa suatu kompleks reaksi terdiri atas perantara ke kitokrom b<sub>6</sub> (kini plastokinon), yang lainnya dari kitokrom f ke satu tahap dalam mekanisme penghasilan karbohidrat. Semua itu dihubungkan oleh plastokinon, yang memerlukan energi untuk mengurangi kitokrom f karena itu merupakan reduktan yang baik. Percobaan lebih lanjut yang membuktikan bahwa oksigen berkembang pada fotosintesis Tumbuhan hijau dilakukan oleh Hill pada tahun 1937 dan 1939. Dia menunjukkan bahwa </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kloroplas" title="Kloroplas"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">kloroplas</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> terisolasi melepaskan oksigen ketika memperleh agen pengurang tak alami seperti </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Besi" title="Besi"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">besi</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oksalat&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Oksalat (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">oksalat</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ferisianida&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Ferisianida (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">ferisianida</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> atau </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benzokinon&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Benzokinon (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">benzokinon</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> setelah sebelumnya diterangi oleh cahaya. Reaksi Hill adalah sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2 H<sub>2</sub>O + 2 A + (cahaya, kloroplas) → 2 AH<sub>2</sub> + O<sub>2</sub><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 24.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">yang mana A adalah penerima elektron. Dengan demikian, dalam penerangan, penerima elektron terkurangi dan oksigen berkembang.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sam_Ruben&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Sam Ruben (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Samuel Ruben</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> dan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Martin_Kamen&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Martin Kamen (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Martin Kamen</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> menggunakan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radionuklida" title="Radionuklida"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">isotop radioaktif</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> untuk menunjukkan bahwa oksigen yang dilepaskan dalam fotosintesis berasal dari air.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melvin_Calvin" title="Melvin Calvin"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Melvin Calvin</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> dan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andrew_Benson&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Andrew Benson (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Andrew Benson</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, bersama dengan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Bassham&action=edit&redlink=1" title="James Bassham (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">James Bassham</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, menjelaskan jalur asimilasi karbon (siklus reduksi karbon fotosintesis) pada Tumbuhan. Siklus reduksi karbon kini dikenal sebagai </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siklus_Calvin&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Siklus Calvin (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">siklus Calvin</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, yang mengabaikan kontribusi oleh Bassham dan Benson. Banyak ilmuwan menyebut siklus ini sebagai Siklus Calvin-Benson, Benson-Calvin, dan beberapa bahkan menyebutnya Siklus Calvin-Benson-Bassham (atau CBB).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 42.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ilmuwan pemenang </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadiah_Nobel" title="Hadiah Nobel"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Hadiah Nobel</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolph_A._Marcus" title="Rudolph A. Marcus"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Rudolph A. Marcus</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, berhasil menemukan fungsi dan manfaat dari rantai pengangkutan elektron.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 42.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Heinrich_Warburg" title="Otto Heinrich Warburg"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Otto Heinrich Warburg</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> dan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dean_Burk&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Dean Burk (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Dean Burk</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> menemukan reaksi fotosintesis I-kuantum yang membagi CO<sub>2</sub>, diaktifkan oleh respirasi. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 42.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louis_N.M._Duysens&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Louis N.M. Duysens (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Louis N.M. Duysens</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> dan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jan_Amesz&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Jan Amesz (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Jan Amesz</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> menemukan bahwa klorofil a menyerap satu cahaya, mengoksidasi kitokrom f, klorofil a (dan pigmen lainnya) akan menyerap cahaya lainnya, namun akan mengurangi kitokrom sama yang telah teroksidasi, menunjukkan bahwa dua reaksi cahaya itu ada dalam satu rangkaian.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in 0in 4.0pt 0in;"><div class="MsoTitle" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;">Perangkat Fotosintesis</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><h3 style="background: white; margin-bottom: .05in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;">Pigmen<o:p></o:p></span></span></h3><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background: #F9F9F9; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berkas:Chloroplast.svg&filetimestamp=20081104093537" title=""Perbesar" "><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="11" src="file:///C:/Users/user/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.gif" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_6" width="15" /></span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="background: #F9F9F9; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Struktur kloroplas:<br />
1. membran luar<br />
2. ruang antar membran<br />
3. membran dalam (1+2+3: bagian amplop)<br />
4. stroma<br />
5. lumen tilakoid (inside of thylakoid)<br />
6. membran tilakoid<br />
7. granum (kumpulan tilakoid)<br />
8. tilakoid (lamella)<br />
9. pati<br />
10. ribosom<br />
11. DNA plastida<br />
12. plastoglobula<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proses" title="Proses"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Proses</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">fotosintesis tidak dapat berlangsung pada setiap</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sel" title="Sel"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">sel</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, tetapi hanya pada sel yang mengandung</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigmen" title="Pigmen"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">pigmen</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">fotosintetik.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Sel yang tidak mempunyai pigmen fotosintetik ini tidak mampu melakukan proses fotosintesis.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Pada percobaan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Ingenhousz" title="Jan Ingenhousz"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Jan Ingenhousz</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, dapat diketahui bahwa</span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intensitas" title="Intensitas"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">intensitas</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cahaya" title="Cahaya"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">cahaya</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">memengaruhi</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laju" title="Laju"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">laju</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">fotosintesis pada</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumbuhan" title="Tumbuhan"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">tumbuhan</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.<sup> </sup>Hal ini dapat terjadi karena perbedaan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energi" title="Energi"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">energi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang dihasilkan oleh setiap </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spektrum" title="Spektrum"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">spektrum</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cahaya" title="Cahaya"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">cahaya</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Di samping adanya perbedaan energi tersebut, faktor lain yang menjadi pembeda adalah kemampuan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daun" title="Daun"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">daun</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dalam menyerap berbagai spektrum cahaya yang berbeda tersebut.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Perbedaan kemampuan daun dalam menyerap berbagai spektrum cahaya tersebut disebabkan adanya perbedaan jenis pigmen yang terkandung pada</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaringan" title="Jaringan"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">jaringan</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">daun.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Di dalam daun terdapat</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesofil" title="Mesofil"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">mesofil</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang terdiri atas</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaringan" title="Jaringan"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">jaringan</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">bunga karang dan jaringan pagar.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Pada kedua jaringan ini, terdapat</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kloroplas" title="Kloroplas"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">kloroplas</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang mengandung pigmen hijau</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klorofil" title="Klorofil"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">klorofil</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Pigmen ini merupakan salah satu dari pigmen fotosintesis yang berperan penting dalam menyerap energi </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matahari" title="Matahari"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">matahari</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Dari semua</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiasi" title="Radiasi"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">radiasi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Matahari yang dipancarkan, hanya panjang gelombang tertentu yang dimanfaatkan tumbuhan untuk proses fotosintesis, yaitu</span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panjang_gelombang" title="Panjang gelombang"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">panjang gelombang</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang berada pada kisaran cahaya tampak (380-700 nm).</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cahaya" title="Cahaya"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Cahaya</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">tampak terbagi atas cahaya merah (610 - 700 nm), hijau kuning (510 - 600 nm), biru (410 - 500 nm), dan violet (< 400 nm).</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Masing-masing jenis cahaya berbeda pengaruhnya terhadap fotosintesis, Hal ini terkait pada sifat</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigmen" title="Pigmen"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">pigmen</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">penangkap cahaya yang bekerja dalam fotosintesis.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Pigmen yang terdapat pada membran grana menyerap cahaya yang memiliki panjang gelombang tertentu.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Pigmen yang berbeda menyerap cahaya pada panjang gelombang yang berbeda. </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kloroplas" title="Kloroplas"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Kloroplas</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">mengandung beberapa pigmen. Sebagai contoh, klorofil a terutama menyerap cahaya biru-violet dan merah, sementara klorofil b menyerap cahaya biru dan oranye dan memantulkan cahaya kuning-hijau. Klorofil a berperan langsung dalam reaksi terang, sedangkan klorofil b tidak secara langsung berperan dalam reaksi terang.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Proses absorpsi energi cahaya menyebabkan lepasnya elektron berenergi tinggi dari klorofil a yang selanjutnya akan disalurkan dan ditangkap oleh akseptor elektron.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Proses ini merupakan awal dari rangkaian panjang reaksi fotosintesis.<o:p></o:p></span></div><h3 style="background: white; margin-bottom: .05in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;">Kloroplas</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #F9F9F9; text-align: justify;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berkas:Chloroplast_in_leaf_of_Anemone_sp_TEM_12000x.png&filetimestamp=20090628210744"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="167" src="file:///C:/Users/user/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image005.gif" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_1" width="220" /></span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #F9F9F9; text-align: justify;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berkas:Chloroplast_in_leaf_of_Anemone_sp_TEM_12000x.png&filetimestamp=20090628210744" title=""Perbesar" "><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="11" src="file:///C:/Users/user/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.gif" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_2" width="15" /></span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #F9F9F9; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Hasil mikroskop elektron dari kloroplas</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kloroplas" title="Kloroplas"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Kloroplas</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">terdapat pada semua bagian</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumbuhan" title="Tumbuhan"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">tumbuhan</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang berwarna hijau, termasuk</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batang" title="Batang"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">batang</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buah" title="Buah"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">buah</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang belum matang.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Di dalam kloroplas terdapat</span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigmen" title="Pigmen"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">pigmen</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klorofil" title="Klorofil"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">klorofil</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang berperan dalam proses fotosintesis.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Kloroplas mempunyai bentuk seperti cakram dengan ruang yang disebut stroma.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Stroma ini dibungkus oleh dua lapisan membran.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Membran stroma ini disebut</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tilakoid&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Tilakoid (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">tilakoid</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, yang didalamnya terdapat ruang-ruang antar membran yang disebut</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lokuli&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Lokuli (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">lokuli</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">. Di dalam</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stroma&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Stroma (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">stroma</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">juga terdapat lamela-lamela yang bertumpuk-tumpuk membentuk</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grana&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Grana (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">grana</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">(kumpulan granum).</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Granum sendiri terdiri atas membran tilakoid yang merupakan tempat terjadinya reaksi terang dan ruang tilakoid yang merupakan ruang di antara membran tilakoid.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Bila sebuah granum disayat maka akan dijumpai beberapa</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Komponen&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Komponen (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">komponen</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">seperti</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein" title="Protein"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">protein</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, klorofil a, klorofil b,</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karetonoid&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Karetonoid (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">karetonoid</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">lipid</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Secara keseluruhan, stroma berisi protein,</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzim" title="Enzim"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">enzim</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">,</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA" title="DNA"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">DNA</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">,</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">RNA</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, gula fosfat,</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribosom" title="Ribosom"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">ribosom</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">,</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin" title="Vitamin"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">vitamin</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">-vitamin, dan juga ion-ion</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logam" title="Logam"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">logam</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">seperti mangan (Mn), besi (Fe), maupun tembaga (Cu).</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Pigmen fotosintetik terdapat pada </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membran" title="Membran"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">membran</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">tilakoid.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Sedangkan, pengubahan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energi" title="Energi"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">energi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">cahaya menjadi energi kimia berlangsung dalam tilakoid dengan produk akhir berupa</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glukosa" title="Glukosa"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">glukosa</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang dibentuk di dalam stroma.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Klorofil sendiri sebenarnya hanya merupakan sebagian dari perangkat dalam fotosintesis yang dikenal sebagai</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fotosistem&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Fotosistem (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">fotosistem</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div><h3 style="background: white; margin-bottom: .05in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;">3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;">Fotosistem</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Fotosistem adalah suatu unit yang mampu menangkap</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energi" title="Energi"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">energi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">cahaya Matahari yang terdiri dari klorofil a, kompleks antena, dan akseptor elektron.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Di dalam kloroplas terdapat beberapa macam</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klorofil" title="Klorofil"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">klorofil</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigmen" title="Pigmen"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">pigmen</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">lain, seperti klorofil a yang berwarna hijau muda, klorofil b berwarna hijau tua, dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karoten" title="Karoten"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">karoten</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang berwarna kuning sampai jingga.</span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosintesis#cite_note-pra-16"><sup><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">[17]</span></sup></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">Pigmen-pigmen tersebut mengelompok dalam membran tilakoid dan membentuk perangkat pigmen yang berperan penting dalam fotosintesis.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Klorofil a berada dalam bagian pusat</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reaksi&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Reaksi (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">reaksi</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Klorofil ini berperan dalam menyalurkan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">elektron</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang berenergi tinggi ke akseptor utama elektron.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Elektron ini selanjutnya masuk ke</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem" title="Sistem"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">sistem</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siklus&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Siklus (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">siklus</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">elektron.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Elektron yang dilepaskan klorofil a mempunyai</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energi" title="Energi"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">energi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">tinggi sebab memperoleh energi dari cahaya yang berasal dari</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekul" title="Molekul"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">molekul</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">perangkat pigmen yang dikenal dengan kompleks antena.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Fotosistem sendiri dapat dibedakan menjadi dua, yaitu fotosistem I dan fotosistem II.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Pada fotosistem I ini penyerapan energi cahaya dilakukan oleh klorofil a yang</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sensitif&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Sensitif (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">sensitif</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">terhadap cahaya dengan panjang gelombang 700 nm sehingga klorofil a disebut juga P700.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Energi yang diperoleh P700 ditransfer dari kompleks antena.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Pada fotosistem II penyerapan energi cahaya dilakukan oleh klorofil a yang sensitif terhadap</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panjang_gelombang" title="Panjang gelombang"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">panjang gelombang</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">680 nm sehingga disebut P680.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">P680 yang teroksidasi merupakan agen pengoksidasi yang lebih kuat daripada P700.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Dengan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Potensial&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Potensial (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">potensial</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">redoks yang lebih besar, akan cukup elektron negatif untuk memperoleh elektron dari molekul-molekul</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air" title="Air"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">air</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div><h3 style="background: white; margin-bottom: .05in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;">4.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;">Membran dan Organel Fotosintesis</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Protein yang mengumpulkan cahaya untuk fotosintesis dilengkapi dengan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membran_sel" title="Membran sel"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">membran sel</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">. Cara yang paling sederhana terdapat pada bakteri, yang mana protein-protein ini tersimpan di dalam mebran plasma.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Akan tetapi, membran ini dapat terlipat dengan rapat menjadi lembaran silinder yang disebut</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tilakoid&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Tilakoid (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">tilakoid</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">,</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">atau terkumpul menjadi</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesikel" title="Vesikel"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">vesikel</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang disebut</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">membran intrakitoplasma</span><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Struktur ini dapat mengisi sebagian besar bagian dalam sel, menjadikan membran itu memiliki area permukaan yang luas dan dengan demikian meningkatkan jumlah cahaya yang dapat diserap oleh bakteri.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Pada Tumbuhan dan alga, fotosintesis terjadi di</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organel" title="Organel"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">organel</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang disebut</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kloroplas" title="Kloroplas"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">kloroplas</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">. Satu</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sel_tumbuhan" title="Sel tumbuhan"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">sel tumbuhan</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">biasanya memiliki sekitar 10 sampai 100 kloroplas. Kloroplas ditutupi oleh suatu membran. Membran ini tersusun oleh membran dalam fosfolipid, membran luar fosfolipid, dan membran antara kedua membran itu. Di dalam membran terdapat cairan yang disebut stroma. Stroma mengandung tumpukan (grana) tilakoid, yang merupakan tempat berlangsungnya fotosintesis. Tilakoid berbentuk cakram datar, dilapisi oleh membran dengan lumen atau ruang tilakoid di dalamnya. Tempat terjadinya fotosintesis adalah membran tilakoid, yang mengandung kompleks membran integral dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kompleks_membran_periferal&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Kompleks membran periferal (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">kompleks membran periferal</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, termasuk membran yang menyerap energi cahaya, yang membentuk fotosistem.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Tumbuhan menyerap cahaya menggunakan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigmen" title="Pigmen"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">pigmen</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klorofil" title="Klorofil"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">klorofil</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, yang merupakan alasan kenapa sebagian besar tumbuhan memiliki warna hijau. Selain klorofil, tumbuhan juga menggunakan pigmen seperi</span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karoten" title="Karoten"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">karoten</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xantofil&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Xantofil (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">xantofil</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Alga juga menggunakan klorofil, namun memiliki beragam pigmen lainnya, misalnya</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fikosianin&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Fikosianin (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">fikosianin</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">,</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karoten" title="Karoten"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">karoten</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xantofil&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Xantofil (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">xantofil</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">pada</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alga_hijau" title="Alga hijau"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">alga hijau</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">,</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fikoeritrin&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Fikoeritrin (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">fikoeritrin</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">pada</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alga_merah" title="Alga merah"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">alga merah</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">(rhodophyta) dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fukoksantin&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Fukoksantin (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">fukoksantin</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">pada</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alga_cokelat" title="Alga cokelat"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">alga cokelat</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">diatom</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang menghasilkan warna yang beragam pula.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Pigmen-pigmen ini terdapat pada tumbuhan dan alga pada protein antena khusus. Pada protein tersebut semua pigmen bekerja bersama-sama secara teratur. Protein semacam itu disebut</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kompleks_panen_cahaya&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Kompleks panen cahaya (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">kompleks panen cahaya</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Walaupun semua sel pada bagian hijau pada tumbuhan memiliki kloroplas, sebagian besar energinya diserap di dalam</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daun" title="Daun"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">daun</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">. Sel pada jaringan dalam daun, disebut</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesofil" title="Mesofil"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">mesofil</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, dapat mengandung antara 450.000 sampai 800.000 kloroplas pada setiap milimeter persegi pada daun. Permukaan daun secara sergam tertutupi oleh</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutikula_tumbuhan" title="Kutikula tumbuhan"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">kutikula</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilin" title="Lilin"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">lilin</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang tahan air yang melindungi daun dari</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penguapan" title="Penguapan"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">penguapan</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang berlebihan dan mengurangi penyerapan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinar" title="Sinar"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">sinar</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biru" title="Biru"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">biru</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">atau</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">ultraviolet</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">untuk mengurangi</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panas" title="Panas"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">pemanasan</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">. Lapisan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daun#epidermis" title="Daun"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">epidermis</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang tembus pandang memungkinkan cahaya untuk masuk melalui sel mesofil</span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jaringan_mesofil&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Jaringan mesofil (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">palisade</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">tempat sebagian besar fotosintesis berlangsung.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in 0in 4.0pt 0in;"><div class="MsoTitle" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Fotosintesis pada Tumbuhan</span></b></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Tumbuhan bersifat</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autotrof" title="Autotrof"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">autotrof</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Autotrof artinya dapat mensintesis makanan langsung dari senyawa anorganik.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Tumbuhan menggunakan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbon_dioksida" title="Karbon dioksida"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">karbon dioksida</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air" title="Air"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">air</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">untuk menghasilkan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gula" title="Gula"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">gula</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oksigen" title="Oksigen"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">oksigen</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang diperlukan sebagai makanannya. Energi untuk menjalankan proses ini berasal dari fotosintesis. Berikut ini adalah persamaan reaksi fotosintesis yang menghasilkan glukosa:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">6H<sub>2</sub>O + 6CO<sub>2</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>+ cahaya → C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(glukosa) + 6O<sub>2<o:p></o:p></sub></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Glukosa dapat digunakan untuk membentuk senyawa organik lain seperti selulosa dan dapat pula digunakan sebagai bahan bakar.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Proses ini berlangsung melalui</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respirasi" title="Respirasi"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">respirasi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">seluler yang terjadi baik pada hewan maupun tumbuhan.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Secara umum reaksi yang terjadi pada respirasi seluler berkebalikan dengan persamaan di atas.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Pada</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respirasi" title="Respirasi"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">respirasi</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, gula (glukosa) dan senyawa lain akan bereaksi dengan oksigen untuk menghasilkan karbon dioksida, air, dan energi kimia.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Tumbuhan menangkap cahaya menggunakan pigmen yang disebut</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klorofil" title="Klorofil"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">klorofil</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Pigmen inilah yang memberi warna hijau pada tumbuhan. Klorofil terdapat dalam organel yang disebut kloroplas. Klorofil menyerap cahaya yang akan digunakan dalam fotosintesis.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Meskipun seluruh bagian tubuh tumbuhan yang berwarna hijau mengandung kloroplas, namun sebagian besar energi dihasilkan di daun.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Di dalam daun terdapat lapisan sel yang disebut mesofil yang mengandung setengah juta kloroplas setiap milimeter perseginya.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Cahaya akan melewati lapisan epidermis tanpa warna dan yang transparan, menuju mesofil, tempat terjadinya sebagian besar proses fotosintesis.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Permukaan daun biasanya dilapisi oleh kutikula dari lilin yang bersifat anti air untuk mencegah terjadinya penyerapan sinar Matahari ataupun penguapan air yang berlebihan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in 0in 4.0pt 0in;"><div class="MsoTitle" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Fotosintesis pada Alga dan Bakteri</span></b></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alga" title="Alga"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Alga</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">terdiri dari alga</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiseluler" title="Multiseluler"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">multiseluler</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">seperti ganggang hingga alga</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mikroskopik&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Mikroskopik (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">mikroskopik</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang hanya terdiri dari satu</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sel" title="Sel"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">sel</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Meskipun alga tidak memiliki struktur sekompleks tumbuhan darat, fotosintesis pada keduanya terjadi dengan cara yang sama.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Hanya saja karena alga memiliki berbagai jenis</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigmen" title="Pigmen"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">pigmen</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dalam kloroplasnya, maka panjang gelombang</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cahaya" title="Cahaya"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">cahaya</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang diserapnya pun lebih bervariasi.Semua alga menghasilkan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oksigen" title="Oksigen"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">oksigen</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dan kebanyakan bersifat</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autotrof" title="Autotrof"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">autotrof</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Hanya sebagian kecil saja yang bersifat</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterotrof" title="Heterotrof"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">heterotrof</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang berarti bergantung pada materi yang dihasilkan oleh organisme lain.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in 0in 5.0pt 0in;"><div class="MsoTitle" style="border: none; line-height: 115%; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 5.0pt 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;">Proses Fotosintesis</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #F9F9F9; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Fotosintesis terdiri dari dua tahap yang disebut reaksi terang, yang membutuhkan cahaya dan melibatkan pemecahan air serta pelepasan oksigen, dan reaksi gelap atau siklus Calvin, yang mengubah karbon dioksida menjadi gula.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Hingga sekarang fotosintesis masih terus dipelajari karena masih ada sejumlah tahap yang belum bisa dijelaskan, meskipun sudah sangat banyak yang diketahui tentang proses vital ini.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Proses fotosintesis sangat kompleks karena melibatkan semua cabang</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmu_pengetahuan_alam" title="Ilmu pengetahuan alam"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">ilmu pengetahuan alam</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">utama, seperti</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika" title="Fisika"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">fisika</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia" title="Kimia"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">kimia</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, maupun</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">biologi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">sendiri.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Pada tumbuhan, organ utama tempat berlangsungnya fotosintesis adalah daun.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Namun secara umum, semua sel yang memiliki</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kloroplas" title="Kloroplas"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">kloroplas</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">berpotensi untuk melangsungkan reaksi ini.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Di organel inilah tempat berlangsungnya fotosintesis, tepatnya pada bagian</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stroma&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Stroma (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">stroma</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Hasil fotosintesis (disebutfotosintat) biasanya dikirim ke jaringan-jaringan terdekat terlebih dahulu.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Pada dasarnya, rangkaian reaksi fotosintesis dapat dibagi menjadi dua bagian utama:</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">reaksi terang</span></b><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">(karena memerlukan cahaya) dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">reaksi gelap</span></b><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">(tidak memerlukan cahaya tetapi memerlukan karbon dioksida).</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Reaksi terang terjadi pada</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grana&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Grana (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">grana</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">(tunggal: granum), sedangkan reaksi gelap terjadi di dalam </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stroma&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Stroma (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">stroma</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Dalam reaksi terang, terjadi konversi</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energi" title="Energi"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">energi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">cahaya menjadi energi kimia dan menghasilkan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oksigen" title="Oksigen"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">oksigen</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">(O<sub>2</sub>).</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Sedangkan dalam reaksi gelap terjadi seri reaksi</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siklik" title="Siklik"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">siklik</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang membentuk gula dari bahan dasar CO<sub>2</sub></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dan energi (</span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP" title="ATP"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">ATP</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NADPH&action=edit&redlink=1" title="NADPH (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">NADPH</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">).<sup> </sup></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Energi yang digunakan dalam reaksi gelap ini diperoleh dari reaksi terang.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Pada proses reaksi gelap tidak dibutuhkan cahaya Matahari. Reaksi gelap bertujuan untuk mengubah senyawa yang mengandung atom karbon menjadi molekul gula.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Organisme fotosintesis itu</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autotrof" title="Autotrof"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">autotrof</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, yang berarti bahwa mereka menyimpan energi, mereka dapat</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sintesis_kimia" title="Sintesis kimia"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">menyintesis</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">makanan langsung ari karbondioksida, air, dan menggunakan energi dari cahaya. Mereka menumbuhkannya sebagai bagian dari</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energi_potensial" title="Energi potensial"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">energi potensial</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">mereka. Akan tetapi, tidak semua organisme menggunakan cahaya sebagai sumber energi untuk melaksanakan fotosintesis, karena</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fotoheterotrof&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Fotoheterotrof (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">fotoheterotrof</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">menggunakan senyawa organik, dan bukan karbondioksida, sebagai sumber energi.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Pada tumbuhan, alga, dan cyanobacteria, fotosintesis menghasilkan oksigen. Ini disebut</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">fotosintesis oksigen</span><span style="line-height: 115%;">. Walaupun ada beberapa perbedaan antara fotosintesis oksigen pada</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumbuhan" title="Tumbuhan"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">tumbuhan</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">,</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alga" title="Alga"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">alga</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">cyanobacteria</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, secara umum prosesnya cukup mirip pada organisme-organisme tersebut. Akan tetapi, ada beberapa jenis bakteri yang melakukan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fotosintesis_anoksigen&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Fotosintesis anoksigen (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">fotosintesis anoksigen</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, yang menyerap karbondioksida namun tidak menghasilkan oksigen.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Karbondioksida diubah menjadi gula dalam suatu proses yang disebut</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fiksasi_karbon&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Fiksasi karbon (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">fiksasi karbon</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">. Fiksasi karbon adalah reaksi</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redoks" title="Redoks"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">redoks</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, jadi fotosintesis memerlukan sumber energi untuk melakukan proses ini, dan elektron yang diperlukan untuk mengubah karbondioksida menjadi</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbohidrat" title="Karbohidrat"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">karbohidrat</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, yang merupaan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reduksi_(kimia)&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Reduksi (kimia) (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">reaksi reduksi</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">. Secara umum, fotosintesis adalah kebalikan dari</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respirasi_sel" title="Respirasi sel"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">respirasi sel</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, yang mana glukosa dan senyawa lainnya teroksidasi untuk menghasilkan karbondioksia, air, dan menghasilkan energi kimia. Namun, dua proses itu berlangsung melalui rangkaian reaksi kimia yang berbeda dan pada kompartemen sel yang berbeda.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persamaan_kimia" title="Persamaan kimia"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Persamaan</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">umum untuk fotosintesis adalah sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2n CO<sub>2</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>+ 2n DH<sub>2</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>+<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">foton</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">→<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbohidrat" title="Karbohidrat"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2(CH<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>n</sub></span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">+ 2n DO<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 24.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Karbondioksida + donor elektron + energi cahaya → karbohidrat + donor elektron teroksidasi<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 24.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Pada fotosintesis</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">okesigen</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">air adalah donor elektron dan, karena merupakan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidrolisis" title="Hidrolisis"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">hidrolisis</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">melepaskan oksigen, persamaan untuk proses ini adalah:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2n CO<sub>2</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>+ 4n H<sub>2</sub>O +<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">foton</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">→<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbohidrat" title="Karbohidrat"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2(CH<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>n</sub></span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">+ 2n O<sub>2</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>+ 2n H<sub>2</sub>O<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">karbondioksida + air + energi cahaya → karbohidrat + oksigen + air<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 1.0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Seringkali 2n molekul air dibatalkan pada kedua pihak, sehingga menghasilkan:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2n CO<sub>2</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>+ 2n H<sub>2</sub>O +<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">foton</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">→<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbohidrat" title="Karbohidrat"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2(CH<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>n</sub></span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">+ 2n O<sub>2</sub><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">karbondioksida + air + energi cahaya → karbohidrat + oksigen<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 120.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Proses lainnya menggantikan senyawa lainnya (Seperti</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arsenit&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Arsenit (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">arsenit</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">) dengan air pada peran suplai-elektron; mikroba menggunakan cahaya matahari untuk mengoksidasi arsenit menjadi</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arsenat&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Arsenat (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">arsenat</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">:<sup> </sup>Persamaan untuk reaksinya adalah sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">CO<sub>2</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>+ (AsO<sub>3</sub><sup>3–</sup>) + foton → (AsO<sub>4</sub><sup>3–</sup>) + CO<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">karbondioksida + arsenit + energi cahaya → arsenat + karbonmonoksida (digunakan untuk membuat senyawa lainnya dalam reaksi berikutnya)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 168.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Fotosintesis terjadi dalam dua tahap. Pada tahap pertama,</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">reaksi terang</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">atau</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">reaksi cahaya</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">menyerap energi cahaya dan menggunakannya untuk menghasilkan molekul penyimpan energi</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosin_trifosfat" title="Adenosin trifosfat"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">ATP</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dan</span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NADPH&action=edit&redlink=1" title="NADPH (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">NADPH</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">. Pada tahap kedua,</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">reaksi gelap</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">menggunakan produk ini untuk menyerap dan mengurangi karondioksida.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 168.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Sebagian besar organisme yang melakukan fotosintesis untuk menghasilkan oksigen menggunakan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spektrum_nampak&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Spektrum nampak (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">cahaya nampak</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">untuk melakukannya, meskipun setidaknya tiga menggunakan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inframerah" title="Inframerah"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">radiasi inframerah</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div><h3 style="background: white; margin-bottom: .05in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l21 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;">Reaksi terang</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background: #F9F9F9; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px; line-height: 13px;"><br />
</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #F9F9F9;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berkas:Reaksiterang.png&filetimestamp=20100516080520" title=""Perbesar" "><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="11" src="file:///C:/Users/user/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.gif" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_19" width="15" /></span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #F9F9F9;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Reaksi terang fotosintesis pada membran tilakoid<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Reaksi terang adalah proses untuk menghasilkan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP" title="ATP"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">ATP</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaksi_redoks" title="Reaksi redoks"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">reduksi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NADP&action=edit&redlink=1" title="NADP (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">NADP</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">H<sub>2</sub>.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Reaksi ini memerlukan molekul</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air" title="Air"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">air</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;"> dan cahaya Matahari. Proses diawali dengan penangkapan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">foton</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">oleh</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigmen" title="Pigmen"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">pigmen</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">sebagai</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antenna_(biologi)&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Antenna (biologi) (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">antena</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Reaksi terang melibatkan dua fotosistem yang saling bekerja sama, yaitu fotosistem I dan II.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Fotosistem I (PS I) berisi pusat reaksi P700, yang berarti bahwa fotosistem ini optimal menyerap cahaya pada panjang gelombang 700 nm, sedangkan fotosistem II (PS II) berisi pusat reaksi P680 dan optimal menyerap cahaya pada panjang gelombang 680 nm.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Mekanisme reaksi terang diawali dengan tahap dimana fotosistem II menyerap cahaya Matahari sehingga elektron klorofil pada PS II tereksitasi dan menyebabkan muatan menjadi tidak stabil.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Untuk menstabilkan kembali, PS II akan mengambil elektron dari molekul H<sub>2</sub>O yang ada disekitarnya. Molekul air akan dipecahkan oleh ion mangan (Mn) yang bertindak sebagai enzim.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Hal ini akan mengakibatkan pelepasan H+ di lumen tilakoid.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Dengan menggunakan elektron dari air, selanjutnya PS II akan mereduksi plastokuinon (PQ) membentuk PQH<sub>2</sub>.Plastokuinon merupakan molekul kuinon yang terdapat pada membran lipid bilayer tilakoid. Plastokuinon ini akan mengirimkan elektron dari PS II ke suatu pompa H<sup>+</sup></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang disebut sitokrom b<sub>6</sub>-f kompleks.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Reaksi keseluruhan yang terjadi di PS II adalah:<br clear="all" /> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2H<sub>2</sub>O + 4 foton + 2PQ + 4H<sup>-</sup><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>→ 4H<sup>+</sup><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>+ O<sub>2</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>+ 2PQH<sub>2</sub><o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><br clear="all" /> Sitokrom b<sub>6</sub>-f kompleks berfungsi untuk membawa elektron dari PS II ke PS I dengan mengoksidasi PQH<sub>2</sub></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dan mereduksi protein kecil yang sangat mudah bergerak dan mengandung tembaga, yang dinamakan plastosianin (PC).</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Kejadian ini juga menyebabkan terjadinya pompa H<sup>+</sup></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dari stroma ke membran tilakoid.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Reaksi yang terjadi pada sitokrom b<sub>6</sub>-f kompleks adalah:<br clear="all" /> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2PQH<sub>2</sub><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>+ 4PC(Cu<sup>2+</sup>) → 2PQ + 4PC(Cu<sup>+</sup>) + 4 H<sup>+</sup><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(lumen)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><br clear="all" /> Elektron dari sitokrom b<sub>6</sub>-f kompleks akan diterima oleh fotosistem I.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Fotosistem ini menyerap energi cahaya terpisah dari PS II, tapi mengandung kompleks inti terpisahkan, yang menerima elektron yang berasal dari H<sub>2</sub>O melalui kompleks inti PS II lebih dahulu.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Sebagai sistem yang bergantung pada cahaya, PS I berfungsi mengoksidasi plastosianin tereduksi dan memindahkan elektron ke protein Fe-S larut yang disebut feredoksin.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Reaksi keseluruhan pada PS I adalah:<br clear="all" /> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Cahaya + 4PC(Cu<sup>+</sup>) + 4Fd(Fe<sup>3+</sup>) → 4PC(Cu<sup>2+</sup>) + 4Fd(Fe<sup>2+</sup>)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><br clear="all" /> Selanjutnya elektron dari feredoksin digunakan dalam tahap akhir pengangkutan elektron untuk mereduksi NADP<sup>+</sup></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dan membentuk NADPH.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Reaksi ini dikatalisis dalam stroma oleh enzim feredoksin-NADP<sup>+</sup></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">reduktase.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Reaksinya adalah:<br clear="all" /> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">4Fd (Fe<sup>2+</sup>) + 2NADP<sup>+</sup><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>+ 2H<sup>+</sup><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>→ 4Fd (Fe<sup>3+</sup>) + 2NADPH<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><br clear="all" /> Ion H<sup>+</sup></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang telah dipompa ke dalam membran tilakoid akan masuk ke dalam ATP sintase.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">ATP sintase akan menggandengkan pembentukan ATP dengan pengangkutan elektron dan H<sup>+</sup></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">melintasi membran tilakoid.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Masuknya H<sup>+</sup></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">pada ATP sintase akan membuat ATP sintase bekerja mengubah ADP dan fosfat anorganik (Pi) menjadi ATP.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Reaksi keseluruhan yang terjadi pada reaksi terang adalah sebagai berikut:<br clear="all" /> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sinar + ADP + Pi + NADP<sup>+</sup><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>+ 2H<sub>2</sub>O → ATP + NADPH + 3H<sup>+</sup><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>+<o:p></o:p></span></div><h4 style="background: white; margin-bottom: .05in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">a.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Skema Z</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h4><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Pada tanaman,</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reaksi_terang&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Reaksi terang (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">reaksi terang</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">terjadi pada</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Membran_tilakoid&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Membran tilakoid (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">membran tilakoid</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">di</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kloroplas" title="Kloroplas"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">kloroplas</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dan menggunakan energi cahaya untuk menyintesis ATP dan NADPH. Reaksi terang memiliki dua bentuk: siklus dan nonsiklus. Pada reaksi nonsiklus,</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">foton</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">diserap pada</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kompleks_antena&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Kompleks antena (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">kompleks antena</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fotosistem&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Fotosistem (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">fotosistem II</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">penyerap cahaya oleh</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klorofil" title="Klorofil"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">klorofil</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pigmen_aksesoris&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Pigmen aksesoris (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">pigmen aksesoris</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">lainnya. Ketika molekul klorofil pada inti pusat reaksi fotosistem II memperoleh energi eksitasi yang cukup dari pigmen antena yang berdekatan dengannya, satu elektron akan dipindahkan ke molekul penerima elektron, yaitu feopftin, melalui sebuah proses yang disebut</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pemisahan_tenaga_terfotoinduksi&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Pemisahan tenaga terfotoinduksi (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">pemisahan tenaga terfotoinduksi</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">. Elektron ini dipindahkan melalui</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rangkaian_transfer_elektron&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Rangkaian transfer elektron (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">rangkaian transport elektron</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, yang disebut</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">skema Z</span></b><span style="line-height: 115%;">, yang pada awalnya berfungsi untuk menghasilkan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Potensi_kemiosmosis&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Potensi kemiosmosis (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">potensi kemiosmosis</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">di sepanjang membran. Satu enzim</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sintase_ATP" title="Sintase ATP"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">sintase ATP</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">menggunakan potensi kemisomosis untuk menghasilkan ATP selama fotofosforilasi, sedangkan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NADPH&action=edit&redlink=1" title="NADPH (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">NADPH</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">adalah produk dari reaksi</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redoks" title="Redoks"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">redoks</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">terminal pada</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">skema Z</span><span style="line-height: 115%;">. Elektron masuk ke molekul klorofil pada</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fofosistem_II&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Fofosistem II (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">fofosistem II</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">. Elektron ini tereksitasi karena cahaya yang diserap oleh</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fotosistem&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Fotosistem (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">fotosistem</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">. Pembawa elektron kedua menerima elektron, yang lagi-lagi dilewatkan untuk menurunkan energi</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Penerim_elektron&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Penerim elektron (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">penerim elektron</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">. Energi yang dihasilkan oleh penerima elektron digunakan untuk menggerakan ion hidrogen di sepanjang membran tilakoid sampai ke dalam lumen. Elektron digunakan untuk mereduksi koenzim NADP, yang memiliki fungsi pada reaksi terang. Reaksi siklus mirip dengan nonsiklus, namun berbeda pada bentuknya karena hanya menghasilkan ATP, dan tidak ada NADP (NADPH) tereduksi yang dihasilkan. Reaksi siklus hanya berlangsung pada fotosistem I. Setelah elektron dipindahkan dari fotosistem, elektron digerakkan melewati molekul penerima elektron dan dikembalikan ke fotosistem I, yang dari sanalah awalnya elektron dikeluarkan, sehingga reaksi ini diberi nama</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">reaksi siklus.</span><span style="line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><h4 style="background: white; margin-bottom: .05in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">b.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Fotolisis Air</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h4><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">NADPH adalah</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agen_pereduksi&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Agen pereduksi (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">agen pereduksi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">utama dalam kloroplas, menyediakan sumber elektron enerjik kepada reaksi lainnya. Produksinya meninggalkan klorofil dengan defisit elektron (teroksidasi), yang harus diperoleh dari beberapa agen pereduksi lainnya. Elektron yang hilang dari klorofil pada</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fotosistem_I&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Fotosistem I (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">fotosistem I</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">ini digantikan dari rangkaian transport elektron oleh</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plastosianin&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Plastosianin (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">plastosianin</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">. Akan tetapi, karena</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fotosistem_II&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Fotosistem II (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">fotosistem II</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">meliputi tahap pertama dari</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">skema Z</span><span style="line-height: 115%;">, sumber elektron eksternal siperlukan untuk mereduksi molekuk</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">klorofil</span></b><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">a</span></b><span style="line-height: 115%;">-nya yang telah teroksidasi. Sumber elektron pada tanaman hijau dan fotosintesis cyanobacteria adalah air. Dua molekul air teroksidasi oleh oleh empat reaksi pemisahan-tenaga berturut-turut oleh fotosistem II untuk menghasilkan satu molekul</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oksigen" title="Oksigen"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">oksigen</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">diatom dan empat ion</span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidrogen" title="Hidrogen"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">hidrogen</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">; elektron yang dihasilkan pada tiap tahap dipindahkan ke residu</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirosin" title="Tirosin"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">tirosin</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">redoks-aktif yang kemudian mereduksi spesies klorofil</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">a</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang berpasangan yang telah terfotooksidasi yang disebut P680 yang berguna sebagai donor elektron primer (digerakkan oleh cahaya) pada pusat reaksi fotosistem II. Oksidasi air</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katalisis" title="Katalisis"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">terkatalisasi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">pada fotosistem oleh fotosistem II oleh suatu struktur redoks-aktif yang mengandung empat ion</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangan" title="Mangan"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">mangan</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dan satu ion kalsium;</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kompleks_evolusi_oksigen&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Kompleks evolusi oksigen (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">kompleks evolusi oksigen</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">ini mengikat dua molekul air dan menyimpan empat padanannya yang telah teroksidasi yang diperlukan untuk melakukan reaksi oksidasi air. Fotosistem II adalah satu-satunya</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzim" title="Enzim"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">enzim</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">biologi yang diketahui melaksanakan oksidasi air ini. Ion hidrogen berkontribusi terhadap potensi kemiosmosis transmembran yang berujung pada sintesis ATP. Oksigen adalah produk ampas dari reaksi cahaya, namun sebagian besar organisme di Bumi menggunakan oksigen untuk</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respirasi_sel" title="Respirasi sel"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">respirasi sel</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, termasuk organisme fotosintesis.<o:p></o:p></span></div><h3 style="background: white; margin-bottom: .05in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l21 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;">Reaksi gelap</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reaksi&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Reaksi (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Reaksi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">gelap pada</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumbuhan" title="Tumbuhan"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">tumbuhan</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dapat terjadi melalui dua</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jalur&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Jalur (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">jalur</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, yaitu</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">siklus Calvin-Benson</span></b><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">siklus Hatch-Slack</span></b><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Pada siklus Calvin-Benson tumbuhan mengubah</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senyawa" title="Senyawa"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">senyawa</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">ribulosa 1,5 bisfosfat menjadi senyawa dengan jumlah atom karbon tiga yaitu senyawa 3-phosphogliserat.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Oleh karena itulah tumbuhan yang menjalankan reaksi gelap melalui jalur ini dinamakan tumbuhan C-3.<sup> </sup>Penambatan CO<sub>2</sub></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">sebagai sumber karbon pada tumbuhan ini dibantu oleh enzim</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubisco" title="Rubisco"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">rubisco</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Tumbuhan yang reaksi gelapnya mengikuti jalur Hatch-Slack disebut tumbuhan C-4 karena senyawa yang terbentuk setelah penambatan CO<sub>2</sub></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">adalah</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oksaloasetat&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Oksaloasetat (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">oksaloasetat</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang memiliki empat atom karbon.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzim" title="Enzim"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Enzim</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang berperan adalah phosphoenolpyruvate carboxilase.</span></div><h4 style="background: white; margin-bottom: .05in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">a.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Siklus Calvin-Benson</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h4><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background: #F9F9F9; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px; line-height: 13px;"><br />
</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #F9F9F9;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berkas:Reaksi_gelapedit_copy.png&filetimestamp=20100516044203" title=""Perbesar" "><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="11" src="file:///C:/Users/user/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.gif" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_26" width="15" /></span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #F9F9F9; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Siklus Calvin-Benson</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mekanisme&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Mekanisme (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Mekanisme</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">siklus Calvin-Benson dimulai dengan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fiksasi&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Fiksasi (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">fiksasi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">CO<sub>2</sub></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">oleh ribulosa difosfat karboksilase (RuBP) membentuk 3-fosfogliserat.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">RuBP merupakan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzim" title="Enzim"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">enzim</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alosetrik&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Alosetrik (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">alosetrik</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang distimulasi oleh tiga jenis perubahan yang dihasilkan dari pencahayaan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kloroplas" title="Kloroplas"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">kloroplas</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">. Pertama, reaksi dari enzim ini distimulasi oleh peningkatan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH" title="PH"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">pH</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Jika kloroplas diberi</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cahaya" title="Cahaya"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">cahaya</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, ion H<sup>+</sup></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">ditranspor dari</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stroma&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Stroma (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">stroma</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">ke dalam</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tilakoid&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Tilakoid (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">tilakoid</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">menghasilkan peningkatan pH stroma yang menstimulasi enzim</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karboksilase" title="Karboksilase"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">karboksilase</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, terletak di</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Permukaan&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Permukaan (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">permukaan</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">luar</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membran" title="Membran"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">membran</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">tilakoid.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Kedua, reaksi ini distimulasi oleh Mg<sup>2+</sup>, yang memasuki stroma daun sebagai ion H<sup>+</sup>, jika kloroplas diberi cahaya.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Ketiga, reaksi ini distimulasi oleh NADPH, yang dihasilkan oleh</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fotosistem&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Fotosistem (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">fotosistem</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">I selama pemberian cahaya. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fiksasi&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Fiksasi (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Fiksasi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">CO<sub>2</sub></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">ini merupakan reaksi gelap yang distimulasi oleh pencahayaan kloroplas.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Fikasasi</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/CO2" title="CO2"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">CO2</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">melewati proses</span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karboksilasi&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Karboksilasi (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">karboksilasi</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">,</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduksi" title="Reduksi"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">reduksi</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenerasi" title="Regenerasi"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">regenerasi</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Karboksilasi melibatkan penambahan CO<sub>2</sub></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dan H<sub>2</sub>O ke RuBP membentuk dua</span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekul" title="Molekul"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">molekul</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">3-fosfogliserat(3-PGA).</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Kemudian pada fase reduksi, gugus karboksil dalam 3-PGA direduksi menjadi 1 gugus aldehida dalam 3-fosforgliseradehida (3-Pgaldehida). <o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Reduksi ini tidak terjadi secara langsung, tapi</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gugus&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Gugus (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">gugus</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">karboksil dari 3-PGA pertama-tama diubah menjadi</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ester" title="Ester"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">ester</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">jenis</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anhidrida&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Anhidrida (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">anhidrida</span></a><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asam" title="Asam"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">asam</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">pada asam 1,3-bifosfogliserat (1,3-bisPGA) dengan penambahan gugus fosfat terakhir dari</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP" title="ATP"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">ATP</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">ATP ini timbul dari</span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fotofosforilasi&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Fotofosforilasi (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">fotofosforilasi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dan ADP yang dilepas ketika 1,3-bisPGA terbentuk, yang diubah kembali dengan cepat menjadi ATP oleh reaksi fotofosforilasi tambahan.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Bahan pereduksi yang sebenarnya adalah NADPH, yang menyumbang 2</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">elektron</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Secara bersamaan, Pi dilepas dan digunakan kembali untuk mengubah ADP menjadi ATP. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Pada</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fase" title="Fase"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">fase</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">regenerasi, yang diregenerasi adalah RuBP yang diperlukan untuk bereaksi dengan CO<sub>2</sub></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">tambahan yang ber</span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Difusi" title="Difusi"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">difusi</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">secara</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Konstan&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Konstan (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">konstan</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">ke dalam dan melalui</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stomata&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Stomata (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">stomata</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Pada akhir reaksi Calvin, ATP ketiga yang diperlukan bagi tiap molekul CO<sub>2</sub>yang ditambat, digunakan untuk mengubah ribulosa-5-fosfat menjadi RuBP, kemudian</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Daur&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Daur (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">daur</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dimulai lagi. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Tiga putaran daur akan menambatkan 3</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekul" title="Molekul"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">molekul</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">CO<sub>2</sub></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Produk" title="Produk"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">produk</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">akhirnya adalah 1,3-Pgaldehida.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Sebagian digunakan kloroplas untuk membentuk</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pati" title="Pati"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">pati</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, sebagian lainnya dibawa keluar.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Sistem ini membuat jumlah</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Total&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Total (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">total</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">fosfat menjadi konstan di kloroplas, tetapi menyebabkan munculnya triosafosfat di</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitosol" title="Sitosol"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">sitosol</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Triosa fosfat digunakan sitosol untuk membentuk</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukrosa" title="Sukrosa"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">sukrosa</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div><h4 style="background: white; margin-bottom: .05in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Siklus Hatch-Slack</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h4><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background: #F9F9F9; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: 12px; line-height: 13px;"><br />
</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #F9F9F9;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berkas:Siklus_hatch_slackedit_copy.png&filetimestamp=20100516051858" title=""Perbesar" "><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="11" src="file:///C:/Users/user/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.gif" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_30" width="15" /></span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: #F9F9F9; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Siklus Hatch-Slack<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Berdasarkan cara memproduksi</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glukosa" title="Glukosa"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">glukosa</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">,</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumbuhan" title="Tumbuhan"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">tumbuhan</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dapat dibedakan menjadi tumbuhan C3 dan C4.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Tumbuhan C3 merupakan tumbuhan yang berasal dari daerah</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subtropis" title="Subtropis"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">subtropis</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Tumbuhan ini menghasilkan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glukosa" title="Glukosa"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">glukosa</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dengan pengolahan CO<sub>2</sub></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">melalui siklus Calvin, yang melibatkan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzim" title="Enzim"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">enzim</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Rubisco sebagai penambat CO<sub>2</sub>. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Tumbuhan C3 memerlukan 3 ATP untuk menghasilkan molekul glukosa.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Namun, ATP ini dapat terpakai sia-sia tanpa dihasilkannya glukosa.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Hal ini dapat terjadi jika ada</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotorespirasi" title="Fotorespirasi"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">fotorespirasi</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, di mana enzim Rubisco tidak menambat CO<sub>2</sub></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">tetapi menambat O<sub>2</sub>. Tumbuhan C4 adalah tumbuhan yang umumnya ditemukan di daerah</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropis" title="Tropis"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">tropis</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Tumbuhan ini melibatkan dua enzim di dalam pengolahan CO<sub>2</sub></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">menjadi glukosa. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Enzim phosphophenol pyruvat carboxilase (PEPco) adalah enzim yang akan mengikat CO<sub>2</sub></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dari udara dan kemudian akan menjadi</span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oksaloasetat&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Oksaloasetat (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">oksaloasetat</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Oksaloasetat akan diubah menjadi malat.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Malat akan terkarboksilasi menjadi piruvat dan CO<sub>2</sub>.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Piruvat akan kembali menjadi PEPco, sedangkan CO<sub>2</sub></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">akan masuk ke dalam siklus Calvin yang berlangsung di sel</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">bundle sheath</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dan melibatkan enzim RuBP.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Proses ini dinamakan siklus Hatch Slack, yang terjadi di sel</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesofil" title="Mesofil"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">mesofil</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosintesis#cite_note-sla-45"></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Dalam keseluruhan proses ini, digunakan 5 ATP. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in 0in 4.0pt 0in;"><div class="MsoTitle" style="line-height: 115%;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Urutan dan Kinetika Photosintesis</span></b></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; tab-stops: center 3.25in;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">Proses forosintesis terjadi melalui empat tahap: <o:p></o:p></span></div><table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableMediumShading2Accent2" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext 2.25pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext 2.25pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;"><tbody>
<tr> <td style="background: #C0504D; border-bottom: solid windowtext 2.25pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid windowtext 2.25pt; mso-background-themecolor: accent2; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-yfti-cnfc: 517; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">Tahap<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div></td> <td style="background: #C0504D; border-bottom: solid windowtext 2.25pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid windowtext 2.25pt; mso-background-themecolor: accent2; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">Penjelasan<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div></td> <td style="background: #C0504D; border-bottom: solid windowtext 2.25pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid windowtext 2.25pt; mso-background-themecolor: accent2; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">Skala waktu<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="background: #C0504D; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: accent2; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">1<o:p></o:p></span></b></div></td> <td style="background: #D8D8D8; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 216; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">Perpindahan energi pada klorofil antena (membran tilakoid)<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="background: #D8D8D8; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 216; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Femtodetik&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Femtodetik (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">femtodetik</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">sampai<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pikodetik&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Pikodetik (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">pikodetik</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="background: #C0504D; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: accent2; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">2<o:p></o:p></span></b></div></td> <td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">Perpindahan elektorn pada reaksi fotokimia (membran tilakoid)<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pikodetik&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Pikodetik (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">pikodetik</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">sampai<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nanodetik&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Nanodetik (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">nanodetik</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="background: #C0504D; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: accent2; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">3<o:p></o:p></span></b></div></td> <td style="background: #D8D8D8; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 216; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">Rantai perpindahan elektron dan sintesis ATP (membran tilakoid)<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="background: #D8D8D8; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 216; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mikrodetik&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Mikrodetik (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">mikrodetik</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">sampai<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millidetik&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Millidetik (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">millidetik</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="background: #C0504D; border-bottom: solid windowtext 2.25pt; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: accent2; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">4<o:p></o:p></span></b></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 2.25pt; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">Fiksasi karbon dan ekspor produk stabil<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 2.25pt; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millidetik&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Millidetik (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">millidetik</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">sampai<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detik" title="Detik"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">detik</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><div style="border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in 0in 4.0pt 0in;"><div class="MsoTitle" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Efisiensi Fotosintesis</span></b></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 36pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumbuhan" title="Tumbuhan"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Tumbuhan</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">biasanya mengubah cahaya menjadi</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Energi_kimia&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Energi kimia (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">energi kimia</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dengan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Efisiensi_fotosintesis&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Efisiensi fotosintesis (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">efisiensi fotosintesis</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">sekitar 3–6%.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Efisiensi fotosintesis yang sebenarnya, bergam tergantung pada frekuensi cahaya yang diserap, suhu dan jumlah karbondioksida di atmosfer, dan dapat bervariasi mulai dari 0.1% sampai 8%.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Sebagai perbadningan,</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modul_fotocolta&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Modul fotocolta (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">panel surya</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">mengubah cahaya menjadi</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energi_listrik" title="Energi listrik"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">energi listrik</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dengan efisiensi ekitar 6-20 % untuk panel yang diproduksi massal, dan di atas 40% untuk panel laboratoium.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in 0in 4.0pt 0in;"><div class="MsoTitle" style="line-height: 115%;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Evolusi Fotosintesis</span></b></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Sistem fotosintesis awal, seperti misalnya pada</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bakteri_sulfur_hijau&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Bakteri sulfur hijau (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">bakteri sulfur hijau</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bakteri_sulfur_ungu&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Bakteri sulfur ungu (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">bakteri sulfur ungu</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">serta</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Klorofleksi&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Klorofleksi (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">baktero nonsulfur hujau</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bakteri_ungu&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Bakteri ungu (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">bakteri nonsulfur ungu</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, dipercaya sebagai anoksigenik, menggunakan beragam molekul sebagai</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Donor_elektron&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Donor elektron (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">donor elektron</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">. Bakteri sulfur hijau dan ungu dipercaya menggunakan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidrogen" title="Hidrogen"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">hidrogen</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">sulfur</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">sebagai donor elektron. Bakteri nonsulfur hijau menggunakan beragam</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asam_amino" title="Asam amino"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">asam amino</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asam_organik" title="Asam organik"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">asam organik</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">lainnya. Bakteri nonsulfur ungu menggunakan beragam molekuk organik nonrinci. Penggunaan molekuk-molekul ini konsisten dengan bukti geologi bahwa atmosfer sangat</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lingkungan_terkurangi&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Lingkungan terkurangi (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">terkurangi</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">pada</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sejarah_Bumi&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Sejarah Bumi (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">masa itu</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Fosil yang dipercaya sebagai organisme fotosintesis</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Filamen_protein&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Filamen protein (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">filamen</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">diperirakan berasal dari 3,4 miliar tahun silam. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Sumber utama</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oksigen" title="Oksigen"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">oksigen</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">di</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosfer_Bumi" title="Atmosfer Bumi"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">atmosfer</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">adalah</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evolusi_oksigen&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Evolusi oksigen (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">fotosintesis oksigen</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, dan kemunculan pertamanya seringkali disebut sebagai</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Katastropi_oksigen&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Katastropi oksigen (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">katastropi oksigen</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">. Bukti geologis menunjukkan bahwa fotosintesis oksigen, seperti misalnya pada</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">cyanobacteria</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, menjadi penting selama era</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoproterozoikum" title="Paleoproterozoikum"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Paleoproterozoikum</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">sekitar 2 miliar tahun silam. Fotosintesis modern pada Tumbuhan dan sebagian besar prokariota fotosintesis menghasilkan oksigen. Fotosintesis oksigen menggunakan air sebagai donor elektron, yang</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redoks" title="Redoks"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">teroksidasi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">menjadi oksigen molekuker (<span class="chemf">O<sub>2</sub></span>) di</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pusat_reaksi_fotosintesis&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Pusat reaksi fotosintesis (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">pusat reaksi fotosintesis</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div><h3 style="background: white; margin-bottom: .05in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;">a.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;">Simbiosis dan asal mula kloroplas</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Beberapa kelompok hewan membentuk hubungan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simbiosis" title="Simbiosis"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">simbiosis</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dengan alga fotosintesis. Ini banyak terdapat pada</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Koral&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Koral (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">koral</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">,</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spons" title="Spons"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">spons</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anemon_laut" title="Anemon laut"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">anemon laut</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">. Diperkirakan bahwa ini adalah akibat dari</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rangka_tubuh&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Rangka tubuh (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">rangka tubuh</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">mereka yang cukup sederhana dan area permukaan tubuh yang luas dibandingkan volume tubuh mereka.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Selain itu, beberapa</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moluska" title="Moluska"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">moluska</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, yaitu</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elysia_viridis&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Elysia viridis (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Elysia viridis</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elysia_chlorotica&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Elysia chlorotica (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Elysia chlorotica</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, juga memiliki hubungan simbiosis dengan kloroplas yang mereka ambil dari alga yang mereka makan dan kemudian disimpan di dalam tubuh mereka. Ini memungkinkan moluska bertahan hidup hanya dengan melakukan fotosintesis selama beberapa bulan pada suatu waktu.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Beberapa gen dari</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukleus_sel" title="Nukleus sel"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">nukleus sel</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Tumbuhan ini ditransfer ke siput sehingga kloroplas dapat disuplai dengan protein yang mereka gunakan untuk bertahan hidup.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Bentuk simbiosis yang bahkan lebih dekat dapat menjelaskan asal usul kloroplas. Kloroplas mungkin memiliki banyak kesamaaan dengan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">bakteri fotosintesis</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, termasuk</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosom" title="Kromosom"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">kromosom</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">bundar,</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribosom" title="Ribosom"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">ribosom</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">berjenis prokariota, dan protein serupa di pusat reaksi fotosintesis.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Teori_endosimbiotik&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Teori endosimbiotik (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Teori endosimbiotik</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">menunjukkan bahwa bakteri fotosintesis didapat (melalui</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endositosis" title="Endositosis"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">endositosis</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">) oleh sel</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukariota" title="Eukariota"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Eukariota</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">untuk membentuk sel</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumbuhan" title="Tumbuhan"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Tumbuhan</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">awal. Dengan demikian, kloroplas kemungkinan merupakan bakteri fotosintesis yang beradaptasi untuk hidup di dalam sel Tumbuhan. Seperti</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitokondria" title="Mitokondria"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">mitokondria</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, kloroplas masih memiliki DNA mereka sendiri, terpisah dari</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=DNA_nukleus&action=edit&redlink=1" title="DNA nukleus (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">DNA nukleus</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">pada sel inang Tumbuhan mereka dan gen dalam DNA kloroplas ini mirip dengan yang terdapat pada</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">cyanobacteria</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">DNA di kloroplas menyandi untuk protein</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redoks" title="Redoks"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">redoks</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">seperti pusat reaksi fotosintesis.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hipotesis_CoRR&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Hipotesis CoRR (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Hipotesis CoRR</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">mengusulkan bahwa lokasi</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">Co</span></b><span style="line-height: 115%;">-lokasi ni diperlukan untuk</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">R</span></b><span style="line-height: 115%;">egulasi</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">R</span></b><span style="line-height: 115%;">edoks.<o:p></o:p></span></div><h3 style="background: white; margin-bottom: .05in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;">b.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;">Cyanobacteria dan Evolusi Fotosintesis</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Kapasitas biokimia untuk menggunakan air sebagai sumber elektron dalam fotosintesis berevolusi sekali, pada</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nenek_moyang_bersama" title="Nenek moyang bersama"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">nenek moyang bersama</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dari</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">cyanobacteria</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang masih ada. Rekaman geologi mengindikasikan bahwa peritiwa perubahan ini terjadi pada awal sejarah Bumi, setidaknya 2450–2320 juta tahun silam, bahkan diperkirakan jauh lebih awal dari itu.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Bukti yang tersedia dari studi geologi mengenai</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batu_sedimen" title="Batu sedimen"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">batu sedimen</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Archean&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Archean (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Archean</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">(>2500 juta tahun silam) mengindikasikan bahwa kehidupan tersebut ada sekitar 3500 juta tahun lalu, namun pertanyaan mengenai kapan fotosintesis oksigen berevolusi masih belum terjawab. Jendela patologi yang jelas untuk</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolusi" title="Evolusi"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">evolusi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">cyanobacteria terbuka sekitar 200 juta tahun silam, mengungapkan biota bakteri biru-hijau yang sudah beragam.<a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria"><span style="color: black;">Cyanobacteria</span></a></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">tetap menjadi</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Produsen_primer&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Produsen primer (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">produsen primer</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">utama di sepanjang masa</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eon_Pretozoikum&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Eon Pretozoikum (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Eon Pretozoikum</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">(2500–543 juta tahun silam), sebagian karena struktur redoks di laut lebih memudahkan fotoautotrof yang mampu melakukan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fiksasi_nirogen&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Fiksasi nirogen (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">fiksasi nirogen</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alga_hijau" title="Alga hijau"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Alga hijau</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">mengikuti hijau-biru sebagai produsen utama di</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rak_kontinental&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Rak kontinental (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">rak kontinental</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">dekat dengan akhir masa</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pretozoikum&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Pretozoikum (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Pretozoikum</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, namun hanya dengan radiasi</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dinoflagelata&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Dinoflagelata (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">dinoflagelata</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">,</span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kokolitoforid&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Kokolitoforid (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">kokolitoforid</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">diatom</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">pada masa</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Messozoikum&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Messozoikum (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Messozoikum</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">(251-65 juta tahun silam)</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Produksi_primer" title="Produksi primer"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">produksi primer</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">pada perairan tonjolan kelautan mulai memiliki bentuk modernnya. Cyanobacteria tetap menjadi penting bagi</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosistem_laut" title="Ekosistem laut"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">ekosistem laut</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">sebagai produsen utama dalam pilin samudra, sebagai agen fiksasi nitrogen biologis, dan, dalam bentuk yang termodifikasi, sebagai</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">plastid</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">alga laut.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Sebuah studi tahun 2010 oleh para peneliti di</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universitas_Tel_Aviv" title="Universitas Tel Aviv"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Universitas Tel Aviv</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">menemukan bahwa</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hornet_oriental&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Hornet oriental (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">hornet oriental</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">(Vespa orientalis) mengubah cahaya matahari menjadi energi listrik menggunakan suatu pigmen yang disebut</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xantopterin&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Xantopterin (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">xantopterin</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">. Ini merupakan bukti ilmiah pertama mengenai anggota kerajaan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewan" title="Hewan"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">hewan</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">yang melakukan fotosintesis.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in 0in 4.0pt 0in;"><div class="MsoTitle" style="line-height: 115%;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Faktor Penentu Laju Fotosintesis</span></b></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;">Proses fotosintesis dipengaruhi beberapa<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Faktor&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Faktor (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">faktor</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>yaitu faktor yang dapat memengaruhi secara langsung seperti kondisi lingkungan maupun faktor yang tidak memengaruhi secara langsung seperti terganggunya beberapa fungsi<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ" title="Organ"><span style="color: black;">organ</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>yang penting bagi proses fotosintesis.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Proses fotosintesis sebenarnya peka terhadap beberapa kondisi lingkungan meliputi kehadiran cahaya Matahari,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suhu" title="Suhu"><span style="color: black;">suhu</span></a>lingkungan, konsentrasi<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbondioksida" title="Karbondioksida"><span style="color: black;">karbondioksida</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(CO<sub>2</sub>).<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Faktor lingkungan tersebut dikenal juga sebagai faktor pembatas dan berpengaruh secara langsung bagi laju fotosintesis.<o:p></o:p></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;">Faktor pembatas tersebut dapat mencegah laju fotosintesis mencapai kondisi<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Optimum&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Optimum (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">optimum</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>meskipun kondisi lain untuk fotosintesis telah ditingkatkan, inilah sebabnya faktor-faktor pembatas tersebut sangat memengaruhi laju fotosintesis yaitu dengan mengendalikan laju optimum fotosintesis.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Selain itu, faktor-faktor seperti<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Translokasi&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Translokasi (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">translokasi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbohidrat" title="Karbohidrat"><span style="color: black;">karbohidrat</span></a>, umur daun, serta ketersediaan<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrisi" title="Nutrisi"><span style="color: black;">nutrisi</span></a>memengaruhi fungsi<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ" title="Organ"><span style="color: black;">organ</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>yang penting pada fotosintesis sehingga secara tidak langsung ikut memengaruhi laju fotosintesis.<o:p></o:p></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;">Berikut adalah beberapa faktor utama yang menentukan laju fotosintesis:<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo11; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Intensitas cahaya</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">. Laju fotosintesis<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maksimum&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Maksimum (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">maksimum</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">ketika banyak cahaya.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo11; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Konsentrasi karbon dioksida</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">. Semakin banyak karbon dioksida di<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Udara" title="Udara"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">udara</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, makin banyak jumlah bahan yang dapt digunakan tumbuhan untuk melangsungkan fotosintesis.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo11; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suhu" title="Suhu"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Suhu</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzim" title="Enzim"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Enzim</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">-enzim yang bekerja dalam proses fotosintesis hanya dapat bekerja pada suhu optimalnya. Umumnya laju fotosintensis meningkat seiring dengan meningkatnya suhu hingga batas</span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toleransi" title="Toleransi"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">toleransi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">enzim.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo11; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">4.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kadar air</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">. Kekurangan air atau kekeringan menyebabkan<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stomata&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Stomata (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">stomata</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">menutup, menghambat penyerapan karbon dioksida sehingga mengurangi laju fotosintesis.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo11; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">5.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kadar fotosintat (hasil fotosintesis)</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">. Jika kadar fotosintat seperti karbohidrat berkurang, laju fotosintesis akan naik. Bila kadar fotosintat bertambah atau bahkan sampai<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jenuh&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Jenuh (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">jenuh</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, laju fotosintesis akan berkurang.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo11; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">6.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Tahap pertumbuhan</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">. Penelitian menunjukkan bahwa laju fotosintesis jauh lebih tinggi pada tumbuhan yang sedang berkecambah ketimbang tumbuhan dewasa. Hal ini mungkin dikarenakan tumbuhan berkecambah memerlukan lebih banyak<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energi" title="Energi"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">energi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">dan<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makanan" title="Makanan"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">makanan</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">untuk tumbuh.</span></div><div style="border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in 0in 4.0pt 0in;"><div class="MsoTitle"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16pt;">a. Intensitas Cahaya (pancaran), Panjang Gelombang dan Suhu</span></b></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;">Pada awal abad ke-120,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Blackman&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Frederick Blackman (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">Frederick Frost Blackman</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>bersama dengan<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein"><span style="color: black;">Albert Einstein</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>menyelidiki pengaruh intensitas cahaya (<a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pemancaran&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Pemancaran (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">pemancaran</span></a>) dan suhu terhadap tingkat asimilasi karbon.<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Pada suhu tetap, tingkat asimilasi karbon beragam dengan pemancaran, pada awalnya meningkat seiring peningkatan pemancaran. Akan tetapi, pada tingkat pemancaran yang lebih tinggi, hubungan ini tidak berlangsung lama dan tingkat asimilasi karbon menjadi konstan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">§<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Pada pemancaran tetap, tingkat asimilasi karbon meningkat seiring suhu meningkat pada cakupan terbatas. Peranguh ini dapat dilihat hanya pada tingkat pemancaran yang tinggi. Pada pemancaran yang rendah, peningkatan suhu hanya memberikan sedikit pengaruh terhadap tingkat asimilasi karbon.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;">Dua eksperimen ini menggambarkan poin penting: Pertama, dari<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penelitian" title="Penelitian"><span style="color: black;">penelitian</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>ini diketahui bahwa, secara umum, reaksi<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotokimia" title="Fotokimia"><span style="color: black;">fotokimia</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>tidak dipengaruhi oleh<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suhu" title="Suhu"><span style="color: black;">suhu</span></a>. Akan tetapi, percobaan ini menunjukkan dengan jelas bahwa suhu mempengaruhi tingkat asimilasi karbon, jadi pasti ada dua rangkaian reaksi pada proses lengkap asimilasi karbon. Ini adalah tahap<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reaksi_bergantung_cahaya&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Reaksi bergantung cahaya (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">'fotokimia' bergantung cahaya</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>dan tahap<a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reaksi_bergantung_suhu&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Reaksi bergantung suhu (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">bergantung suhu tapi tak bergantung udara</span></a>. Yang kedua, percobaan Blackman menunjukkan konsep<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Faktor_pembatas&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Faktor pembatas (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">faktor pembatas</span></a>. Faktor pembatas lainnya adalah panjang gelombang cahaya. Cyanobacteria, yang hidup beberapa meter di bawah tanah tidak dapat memperoleh panjang gelombang yang tepat yang diperlukan untuk menghasilkan pemisahan bertenaga fotoinduksi pada pigmen fotosintesis konvensional. Untuk mengatasi permasalahan ini, serangkaian protein dengan pigmen-pigmen berbeda mengelilingi pusat reaksi. Unit ini disebut<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fikobilisome&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Fikobilisome (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">fikobilisome</span></a>.</div><div style="border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border: none; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in 0in 4.0pt 0in;"><div class="MsoTitle" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -.25in;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16pt;">Tingkat Karbondioksida dan Fotorespirasi</span></b></span><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Ketika konsentrasi karbondioksi meningkat, tingkat yang mana gula dihasilkan oleh</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reaksi_bergantung_cahaya&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Reaksi bergantung cahaya (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">reaksi bergantung cahaya</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">meningkat hingga dibatasi oleh faktor-faktor lainnya.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=RuBisCO&action=edit&redlink=1" title="RuBisCO (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">RuBisCO</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, enzim yang mengkat karbondioksida pada reaksi bebas cahaya, memiliki afinitas pengikatan untuk karbon dan oksigen. Ketika konsentrasi karbondioksida tinggi, RuBisCO akan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fiksasi_karbon&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Fiksasi karbon (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">memfiksasi karbondioksida</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">. Akan tetapi, jika konsentrasi karbondioksida rendah, RuBisCO akan mengikat oksigen dan bukan karbondioksida. Proses ini, yang dsiebut</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotorespirasi" title="Fotorespirasi"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">fotorespirasi</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, menggunakan energi, tapi tidak menghasilkan gula.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Aktivitas oksigenase RuBisCO tidak menguntungkan bagi Tumbuhan karena beberapa alasan berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Salah satu produk aktivitas oksigenasi adalah<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fosfoglikolat&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Fosfoglikolat (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">fosfoglikolat</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(2 karbon) dan bukannya<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=3-fosfogliserat&action=edit&redlink=1" title="3-fosfogliserat (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">3-fosfogliserat</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(3 karbon). Fosfoglikolat tidak dapat dimetabolisme oleh siklus Calvin-Benson dan menunjukkan karbon yang hilang dari sklus tersebut. Aktivitas oksigenasi yang tinggi, dengan demikian, menguras gula yang diperlukan untuk mengolah kembali<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ribulose_5-bisfosfat&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Ribulose 5-bisfosfat (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">ribulose 5-bisfosfat</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">dan untuk keberlangsungan<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siklus_Calvin-Benson&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Siklus Calvin-Benson (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">siklus Calvin-Benson</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Fosfoglikolat dimetabolisme dengan cepat menjadi<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glikolat&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Glikolat (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">glikolat</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">yang beracun bagi Tumbuhan pada konsentrasi yang tinggi. Ini menghambat fotosintesis.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Menyimpan Glikolat secara energi merupakan proses yang mahal yang menggunakan jalur glikolat, dan hanya 75% dari karbon yang dikembalikan pada siklus Calvin-Benson sebagai 3-fosfogliserat. Reaksi ini juga menghasilkan<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">ammonia</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">(NH<sub>3</sub>), yang dapat<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Difusi_molekul&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Difusi molekul (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">berdifusi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">keluar dari Tumbuhan, berujung pada hilangnya nitrogen.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ringkasan sederhananya adalah sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2 glikolat + ATP → 3-fosfogliserat + karbondioksida + ADP + NH<sub>3</sub><o:p></o:p></span></div><div style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 48.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Penggunaan jalur untuk produk dari aktivitas oksigenase RuBisCO oxygenase lebih dikenal sebagai</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotorespirasi" title="Fotorespirasi"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">fotorespirasi</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;">, karena dicirikan dengan konsumsi oksigen bergantung pada cahaya dan pelepasan karbondioksida.<o:p></o:p></span></div>Lolahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04420217654620250583noreply@blogger.com0